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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Canterbury, 2007. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references. Also available via the World Wide Web.

The study of urban geography has received increasing attention in recent years both in this country and overseas. Its content and method have been recently surveyed, and a considerable amount of research on these lines has been done here in New Zealand. Within this field the geography of ports forms a distinct branch for study since ports themselves are a specialised part of some urban areas. Indeed, over the past few years there has developed an extensive geographical literature dealing with ports. This field, which could be termed 'port geography' has attracted some interest in New Zealand as a subject for research; but in the past, studies of ports have been limited to examinations of individual ports, groups of ports, or one aspect of ports. This present study, however , has been made upon broader lines. It is an attempt to describe, analyse, and compare the most important aspects of the contemporary character of the South Island seaports. It is suggested that the character of a port is derived principally from the nature of its location, site, form or pattern, facilities, trade, hinterland and fishing. Since these are the most important features, they are analysed and described in turn in this thesis. This systematic approach was found necessary in order that significant comparisons and contrasts - which is the essence of geography - might be drawn between the ports. The problem can be expressed in the question: "In what ways do the characters of the South Island seaports differ one from another?" "A port is a place equipped to facilitate the necessary relations between ships as the agencies of sea transport and the land," and provides "terminal facilities and services for ships, and transfer facilities and services for ships, and transfer facilities and services for waterbourne goods and/or passengers." In these general terms there are many places in the South Island of New Zealand which could be considered as ports. However, only those South Island seaports which make returns to the New Zealand Census and Statistics Department have been included in this study; namely , the ports of Waitapu, Motueka, Nelson, Picton, Wairu, Lyttelton, Timaru, Oamaru, Otago, Bluff, Greymouth and Westport. This thesis is based both on fieldwork carried out by the writer during 1953 and the early months of 1954, and on an examination of statistical and other material drawn from a wide variety of sources in Wellington and in South Island centres. All the ports included in the survey were visited in the course of the fieldwork. Section by section land utilisation surveys were made of the port vicinities of the thirteen largest ports from aerial photographs in Head Office, Lands & Survey Department, Wellington, and from actual field investigations. A large number of people were interviewed at the ports and in the towns of their tributary regions. The statistics used in this study have been related as closely as possible to the calendar year 1952 and have been presented in the form of maps, cartograms, and graphs, rather than in a series of tables. The analysis of these diagrams provides the comparative data on which three of the eight chapters are based. Since the majority of the maps have been compiled from numerous sources they have been annotated separately in AppendiX A. All photographs, except those whi ch have been otherwise acknowledged, were taken by the author. All maps and diagrams were also compiled and drawn by the author. A list of the works consulted in the preparation of this thesis are contained in the bibliography.

This study is an archaeological examination of the prehistoric hunting of moa, a family (Dinornithidae) of now extinct large flightless birds that inhabited New Zealand. The analysis employs a detailed butchering pattern analysis for the moa remains and combines it with a lithic usewear microchipping and polish analysis. The usewear analysis examines two lithic materials, porcellanite and silcrete. The criteria used to distinguish worked material in the usewear study. The general patterns of moa exploitation and butchering are defined in a faunal analysis of moa remains from sites from throughout New Zealand. Hunting strategies are examined in a case study of the Clutha River area of southern New Zealand, by interpreting the results of the butchering pattern analysis in combination with the usewear analysis results and some of the general aspects of site type and location. It is concluded that moa were hunted by an individual hunting strategy, probably with wooden spears. Hunting was done from habitation sites, not from temporary camps established from base camps. Hunting did not specialise in any one particular moa species. In addition to meat, bone marrow was also particular moa species. In addition to meat, bone marrow was also extracted and eaten. No evidence of meat preservation was found. The results correspond well with expectations based on analogies from traditional hunting of other large birds and in east Polynesia, suggesting the methodology is reliable for studying hunting and could be applied elsewhere. The study also includes an examination of bone anatomical landmarks as a means to identifying moa species. The hypothesised significance of the variation in these traits is used to make suggestions about possible moa behaviour. It is suggested that Megalapteryx didinus was more awkward than the other moa, that Anomalopteryx didiformis may have had a diet more similar to that of the kiwi than to that of the other moa, and that Dinornis species may have balanced their centre of gravity differently from other moa. Based on the manner in which moa were hunted, it is proposed that moa did not congregate in large flocks.

The study of urban geography has received increasing attention in recent years both in this country and overseas. Its content and method have been recently surveyed, and a considerable amount of research on these lines has been done here in New Zealand. Within this field the geography of ports forms a distinct branch for study since ports themselves are a specialised part of some urban areas. Indeed, over the past few years there has developed an extensive geographical literature dealing with ports. This field, which could be termed 'port geography' has attracted some interest in New Zealand as a subject for research; but in the past, studies of ports have been limited to examinations of individual ports, groups of ports, or one aspect of ports. This present study, however , has been made upon broader lines. It is an attempt to describe, analyse, and compare the most important aspects of the contemporary character of the South Island seaports. It is suggested that the character of a port is derived principally from the nature of its location, site, form or pattern, facilities, trade, hinterland and fishing. Since these are the most important features, they are analysed and described in turn in this thesis. This systematic approach was found necessary in order that significant comparisons and contrasts - which is the essence of geography - might be drawn between the ports. The problem can be expressed in the question: "In what ways do the characters of the South Island seaports differ one from another?" "A port is a place equipped to facilitate the necessary relations between ships as the agencies of sea transport and the land," and provides "terminal facilities and services for ships, and transfer facilities and services for ships, and transfer facilities and services for waterbourne goods and/or passengers." In these general terms there are many places in the South Island of New Zealand which could be considered as ports. However, only those South Island seaports which make returns to the New Zealand Census and Statistics Department have been included in this study; namely , the ports of Waitapu, Motueka, Nelson, Picton, Wairu, Lyttelton, Timaru, Oamaru, Otago, Bluff, Greymouth and Westport. This thesis is based both on fieldwork carried out by the writer during 1953 and the early months of 1954, and on an examination of statistical and other material drawn from a wide variety of sources in Wellington and in South Island centres. All the ports included in the survey were visited in the course of the fieldwork. Section by section land utilisation surveys were made of the port vicinities of the thirteen largest ports from aerial photographs in Head Office, Lands & Survey Department, Wellington, and from actual field investigations. A large number of people were interviewed at the ports and in the towns of their tributary regions. The statistics used in this study have been related as closely as possible to the calendar year 1952 and have been presented in the form of maps, cartograms, and graphs, rather than in a series of tables. The analysis of these diagrams provides the comparative data on which three of the eight chapters are based. Since the majority of the maps have been compiled from numerous sources they have been annotated separately in AppendiX A. All photographs, except those whi ch have been otherwise acknowledged, were taken by the author. All maps and diagrams were also compiled and drawn by the author. A list of the works consulted in the preparation of this thesis are contained in the bibliography.

The measurements from eighteen GPS (Global Positioning System) surveys and four terrestrial surveys were used to calculate the velocities of 406 survey stations throughout the South Island, Stewart Island and the southernmost North Island. Repeated GPS measurements are available at 350 stations. The calculation of the velocities for the remaining stations is made possible through the use of terrestrial measurements. The velocity was modelled under the assumption that the displacements of the stations are either linear with time or linear punctuated by discontinuities. The discontinuous model was used to estimate the coseismic displacements of stations in the vicinity of the 1994 Arthur�s Pass earthquake (M 6.7). The maximum station displacement was estimated to be ca. 40 cm, and significant displacements are seen to a range of ca. 70 km from the earthquake epicentre. Station displacements were also calculated for two later earthquakes in the vicinity of the Arthur�s Pass earthquake, but it was not possible to separate these from the postseismic displacements due to the earlier earthquake. A continuous velocity field was estimated from the discrete station velocity measurements through a stochastic model based on the concept of minimum curvature. The selection of the basic stochastic model was effectively arbitrary; however, the model was refined to better suit the velocity field in the South Island. This was achieved through estimating the correlation between the velocity components (east and north) and the anisotropy of the velocity field. The stochastic model has the advantage over other models (e.g. polynomials or splines) in that only the probable shape of the velocity field is assumed. Therefore, the shape of the velocity field is not restricted by a priori model assumptions. The measurement of the differential velocity across the South Island plate boundary between Christchurch and Cape Farewell is less than 85% of the interplate velocity calculated from NUVEL-1A. One possibility is that the NUVEL-1A model may not be an accurate representation of the motion at this plate boundary. Alternatively, deformation (occurring during the period of survey measurements) may extend a total distance of 150 km or more (assuming that the spatial velocity differential is less than 5x10⁻⁷/year) offshore from Christchurch and Cape Farewell. In the southern South Island there is evidence for as much as 22 mm/year of east directed motion being accommodated between Fiordland�s west coast and the stable interior of the Australian Plate. An accretionary wedge has been imaged west of Fiordland (Davey and Smith, 1983; Delteil et al., 1996); therefore, some of this deformation may be related to slip on the subduction interface. The shear strain rates are clearly influenced by the dominant fault elements in the South Island, i.e. the southern and central Alpine Fault, and the eastern Hope Fault. The maximum measured shear strain rate in the South Island, 6(±1) x10⁻⁷/year, occurs adjacent to the Alpine Fault at (1 70.5°E, 43.3°S), ca. 40 km northeast of Mt Cook, and is coincident with a local dilatational strain rate minimum, -7 (±4.5) x 10⁻⁸/year. This is the only location where the measured strain rate is compatible with strike-slip and dip-slip motion on the Alpine Fault. Shear strain rates decrease eastwards along the Hope Fault: from 5(±0.7) x10⁻⁷/year at the Alpine Fault, to 3(±0.8) x10⁻⁷/year close to the Jordan Thrust. The zone of deformation broadens with a concomitant decrease in shear strain rate, such that within the northeast South Island there is no distinct maximum over any particular fault. A band of contraction and shear has been imaged at a distance of 100 km southeast of, and parallel to, the Alpine Fault. The deformation at this location may be related to a frontal thrust zone similar to that described in the two-sided wedge models. The band of deformation continues north of Christchurch, intersecting the Porters Pass Fault Zone. Significant contraction rates are seen in the measurements from four other zones. The first of these is situated towards the northeast (on land) ends of the Clarence, Awatere and Hope Faults. Some of this signal is presumably related to the uplift of the Seaward and Inland Kaikoura Ranges. The three remaining zones of significant negative dilatational strain rate are located north of the Wairau Fault, close to Jackson Bay and within central Otago. A zone of significant shear strain rate is measured along the eastern side of, and within southern Fiordland. The deformation measurements probably partially reflect the existence of an important fault running through Lake Te Anau, which accommodates the motion of the Fiordland block relative to the Pacific Plate. The remainder may be due to internal deformation of the Fiordland block. A new velocity differential measurement has been introduced, the rotational excess. This function of the shear strain rate, vorticity and dilatational strain rate should be sensitive to tectonic rotation (as measured by paleomagnetic data). Point estimates of the rotational excess are insignificant throughout the South Island. Also, there are no easily defined regions in which spatially averaged measurements are significant. If the rotational excess is assumed to be a direct measurement of tectonic rotation then the measurements place a bound on the size of the region and the rate at which it rotates. For example, the rate of tectonic rotation within a square region with side lengths of 50 km located adjacent to Cape Campbell is unlikely to be greater than 4°/Ma. However, greater tectonic rotation rates are possible within smaller regions.

This thesis examines visitors' awareness and experiences of cultural values for natural areas of importance to Maori. The South Island/Te Wai Pounamu contains natural landscapes with scenic and recreational values that attract large numbers of domestic and international visitors. Many of these areas have a cultural significance for members of the South Island's Ngai Tahu iwi and hapu groups. The Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 legally recognised the traditional relationships between the iwi and the natural world, whilst other Acts of Parliament provide direction to government agencies for encouraging iwi involvement in the management of natural resources. Measures include increased participation in the management of national parks through iwi representation on regional conservation boards, the New Zealand Conservation Authority, and the inclusion of Ngai Tahu values within subsequent national park management plans. National park interpretation may influence visitors' awareness of cultural values for natural areas as visitors encounter information panels, displays, publications such as visitor guides or brochures, experience guided tours and/or audiovisual shows and view other interpretive medium. The researcher investigated visitors' awareness of Maori values for landscape at three South Island case study sites: Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, Fiordland National Park, and Lake Pukaki. An understanding of the Ngai Tahu values for these areas was achieved through site visits, a literature review and informal interviews to enable comparisons of the management history of interpretation at the case study sites. Visitors' experiences at each site were explored with interviews, participant observations and a survey that provided qualitative and quantitative data. The survey was administered between January and April 2000 to 716 visitors, yielding 472 valid returns (65.9%). A comprehensive profile of visitors' demographics, social and environmental values was developed from the survey data. Visitors were well educated with 70% having a tertiary education and the majority of visitors were employed in professional occupations. When asked about their previous experiences of other cultures, many visitors reported prior encounters with Australian Aborigine and Native Americans. Visitors considered Rotorua and the Bay of Islands as the locations most closely associated with Maori whereas the study sites were not regarded as significant to Maori, despite the presence of on-site interpretation conveying Maori values for each area. Maori culture was not an important travel motivation for most visitors to these areas and the research revealed diverse reactions from the survey respondents towards cultural interpretive material. Despite this a small percentage of visitors (14%), of domestic and international origins, had an extremely strong interest in future opportunities to experience cultural interpretation of the landscape, particularly in material that tended towards the narrative, for example mythology and legends. It was concluded that a niche demand for Maori perspectives of natural areas could be further met with increased resources for interpretation at visitor centres. It was also proposed that such interpretation could attract a Maori audience, increasing Maori visitation to national parks. The participation of Maori and other host community members in the development and delivery of cultural landscape interpretation would provide broad perspectives and unique educational opportunities for the visiting public. At the case study areas, and throughout New Zealand, the cultural landscapes encountered by visitors had complex and diverse meanings to a wide range of peoples, depending on individual circumstances. Similarly, the diversity of visitors requires the development of interpretation which responds to visitor demand as well as management needs, the multitude of meanings for the landscape being but one of many possible themes.

How individuals perceive their environment determines how they relate to and interact with it. This research takes a specific landscape, the South Island high country, and identifies and evaluates how it is perceived. It is evident that the way in which individuals perceive landscape reflects not only their physical enviroment, but their culture. Culture gains even greater importance in this process, when one considers the perceptions of community and society. Landscape perception concerns how individuals view and interact with their environment. It is the initial step in developing opinions and positions on issues relating to a specfic area. Experience of, and participation are identified as crucial components of the perception process. Those who indicated they were actively involved in the high country were more likely to have richer and more acute perceptions of the area than those who were not so involved. The latter group tended to reflect the imagery of the media and other sources. Current perceptions of the high country were found to be oriented around images of pastoral farming, wilderness experience, recreation and tourism activity. The location of the high country, as perceived by respondents, centred on the lakes district of inland Otago and South Canterbury. Where survey respondents resided was clearly of influence on their perceived high country. While the perceived high country reflected much of the historical imagery, it also reflected socioeconomic change in the area. The move from pastoralism to recreation and tourism was apparent, as was resistance by the public to alienation of high country land through sale of Crown land to overseas interests and its use in Treaty settlements. There was general acceptance, especially amongst experts, that change in the area (lease reorganisation and economic activity in particular) will have an important impact on landuse and how the public perceives the high country. The future of the high country is seen by lay-person and expert alike as lying with the expansion of tourism and recreation. This will see more people visiting and living in the area. All interviewees agreed that pastoral farming will play a decreasing role in the area and that a greater diversity of landuse and, in turn, perceptions of the high country will result from these shifts.

A valuable part of the history and prehistory of New Zealand in the form of drawings, paintings and engravings, is present in many of the limestone areas of New Zealand. Although undated, the drawings give an indiction of the way of life and the culture of the artists. There are three kinds of rock art in New Zealand: drawings or paintings and engravings in rock shelters and engravings on portable rocks. The most common variety of rock art is the drawings. Concentrated recording has revealed sites throughtout New Zealand, but most commonly in North Otago and South Canterbury. The drawings and paintings from these areas will be delt with in this thesis, with only brief mention of engravings and portable art forms. Drawing is defined as the use of a pigment such as charcoal and haematite applied dry to a surface. The drawings are not only executed in monochrome, but often incorporate red, black, and white.

Summary: Since 1949, when K.B. Cumberland wrote the first geographical treatise on pre-20th century Maori settlement and livelihood in New Zealand, twenty-five major geographical studies on various aspects of the topic have been published. Of these, nine have been concerned with the nature of settlement, population distribution, and economy, as they varied from one area to another within New Zealand at given points in time. A further five studies, concerned with the historical geography of New Zealand in general, contain very brief accounts concerning the distribution of Maori population and the nature of the Maori economy in the 19th century. Four studies, relying on early European observations, have focused on the character of Maori settlement in particular regions: North West Nelson, Westland, Taupo County, and Tauranga County. Another study has analysed the nature of Maori land sales and the effect these had on the 19th century Maori population of one area in the North Island. One study has considered in detail the affect the so called �moa hunter� settlement had on the forests of the east coast of the South Island. And finally, five studies have focused on the nature and changes in Maori agriculture in the North Island from the late 18th to the 19th century-- Chapter 1.