Diss.--Universität Bremen, 2000. / Bibliogr. p. 257-280. Index.

Thesis--St. Petersburg. / Documents quoted in Low German, modern German, and Russian, in parallel columns.

Conclusion Novgorod is one of the most archeologically excavated medieval cities in the world. Archaeological research has shown that the highest power was concentrated in the hands of few boyars families, which was controlled all city. This families had the clan organisation which was based on the patronimic princip. They lived in the large properties where was concentrated their household and production areas. In these properties also lived inhabitants of non-boyar originality, who was worked there and was in client relationships with boyar families. This paper is about social bindings between citizens, their power assignment and equity ratios, also kinds of families which existed in the city and which social prospects had members of social strates.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--State University of New York at Binghamton, Department of Art History, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references.

Les recherches sur la ville de Nijni Novgorod suscitent des interrogations au sujet de la «ville-nature». Les spécificités de ce territoire, situé dans un autre contexte culturel, nous incitent à contester la généralisation d'un paradigme, celui de la «ville-nature». Il s'agit de revisiter la ville russe contemporaine par la complexité des interactions entre la construction urbaine, conçue par l'homme, et les processus naturels. Par le biais de la «ville-nature» nous repensons la ville et ses changements de conception : le passage d'une ville russe ancienne à la grande ville et à la ville socialiste. L'étude historique était essentielle pour comprendre le phénomène d'urbanisation et les origines des «natures» dans le milieu urbain, dont l'hétérogénéité résulte d'une séquence de bouleversements économiques et politiques. Nijni Novgorod ‒ centre d'agglomération industrielle, pendant la période soviétique Gorki — est fortement marquée par l'industrie. La postsoviétisation et la désindustrialisation ont engendré une recomposition urbaine, en rendant la structure urbaine illisible. Nijni Novgorod s'inscrit dans le territoire par des réseaux multiples dont la reconnaissance et la distinction, réalisées par une lecture stratifiée, à l'aide de la cartographie, mettent en évidence l'émergence du «vert» et participe à la qualification des espaces ouverts. «Sortir du vert» suppose de revisiter le rapport entre l'écologie et l'économie, ainsi que de reconsidérer la présence de la nature dans le milieu urbain par des activités économiques, des enjeux politiques et l'usage des processus naturels par l'homme. La thèse est structurée en entrées thématiques afin de présenter la diversité des rapports que la Nijni Novgorod contemporaine entretient avec la nature. Tout d'abord, sa position à la confluence de la Volga et l'Oka a prédéterminé sa viabilité économique et en même temps a posé le problème de la complexité des conditions naturelles, l'hydrographie et la topographie notamment. En dépit de la réalisation de travaux d'aménagements pendant le XXe siècle, les sols urbains restent difficilement praticables et vulnérables aux processus naturels. Dans la recherche, les espaces ouverts et végétalisés, considérés jusqu'à maintenant non constructibles, sont revisités comme appartenant à l'infrastructure paysagère. Des principes nouveaux d'aménagement sont recherchés pour réorganiser les processus naturels afin d'améliorer la qualité des sols urbains ; le travail du paysagiste s'accorde avec celui de l'ingénieur. Ensuite, la planification stratégique des années 1930 a prédéfini la structure éparpillée de Nijni Novgorod, pensée pour les industries. L'incohérence urbaine résulte des contradictions apparues entre la conception de la ville socialiste unie et la décentralisation uniforme des industries. Les espaces verts conservent l'empreinte des changements sociaux brutaux, de l'inaction politique et des pratiques d'aménagement urbain par les propres moyens des habitants. Le déclin de l'URSS a entraîné l'abandon des grands parcs publics, dont les qualités se rapprochent de celles des terrains réservés pour les espaces verts qui ne furent jamais aménagés. Cependant, la pauvreté des parcs urbains est compensée par la richesse des formes d'agriculture urbaine et périurbaine. Le tissu bâti est composé d'une morphologie dite intermédiaire, incluant des parcelles pour des activités agricoles. Enfin, les processus actuels sont considérés à travers des pratiques d'aménagement qui accompagnent la régénération postindustrielle et l'installation des nouvelles activités. À Nijni Novgorod, la transition postsoviétique accorde de nouvelles données pour le projet urbain, or ce passage se complique par l'ancrage des dogmes soviétiques dans la pensée actuelle. La recherche est réalisée à la rencontre des regards : architectural, territorial et paysager, par le croisement de méthodes différentes : l'histoire, la cartographie, le travail d'enquête sur le terrain. / The researches on the city of Nizhny Novgorod raise questions concerning “city-nature”. The specificities of this territory, situated in another cultural context, incite to contest the generalization of one paradigm, that of “city-nature”. This means to revisit the contemporary Russian city through the complexity of the interactions between the urban construction, which is conceived by human, and the natural processes. Through the “city-nature” we are questioning the “city” and the changes in its conception: the passage from the Russian town to the growing city and to the socialist city. The historic study was essential towards the understanding of the phenomenon of urbanization and the origins of the "natures", presented in the urban area. Its heterogeneousness results from a sequence of the economic and political upheavals. Nizhny Novgorod, during the Soviet period Gorky, is the centre of an industrial conglomeration; it is strongly marked by the industry. The postsoviétisation and the deindustrialization engendered the spatial reorganization and made the urban structure illegible. Nizhny Novgorod fit in the territory by multiple networks. Their recognition and distinction, realized by stratified reading through the cartographic analysis, puts in evidence the emergence of the "green" and participle in the qualification of the opened spaces. "Go out of the green" supposes to revisit the report between the ecology and the economy, as well as to reconsider the presence of the nature in the urban area by economic activities, the political aims and the usage of the natural processes by human. The thesis is structured by the thematic entrances in order to present the diversity of reports which contemporary Nijni Novgorod maintains with the nature. First of all, its position in the confluence of the Volga and Oka predetermined the economic viability and at the same time raised the problem of the complexity of the natural conditions, the hydrography and the topography particularly. In spite of improving the urban environment during the XXth century, the urban grounds remain practicable with difficulties and vulnerable in the natural processes. In the researches, the open and vegetated spaces, considered so far as not for construction, are revisited as belonging to the landscaped infrastructure. New principles of urban design are looked for to reorganize the natural processes in order to improve the quality of the urban grounds; the landscape design requires the engineering skills. Then, the strategic planning of the 1930s has predefined the disperse framework by Nijni Novgorod, conceived for the industries. The reason of urban incoherence due to the contradictions appeared between the conception of the united socialist city and the regular decentralization of the industries across the country. The urban green spaces conserve the imprint of the social upheavals, the political inactivity and the practices of urban design by the inhabitants with their own means. The decline of the USSR entailed the desolation of the city parks, whose qualities nowadays get closer to those of the spaces reserved for the new parks which were never realized. However, the poverty of the urban green spaces is compensated with the diversity of the forms of urban and suburban agriculture. The urban morphology consists of intermediate types, which include household plots, particularly for the gardens. Finally, the current processes are studied through the strategies of spatial organization, which will accompany the post-industrial regeneration and installation of the new activities. The post-sovietization brings to Nizhny Novgorod the new conditions for the urban project, but this passage is complicated by the anchoring of the Soviet doctrines in the urban conception. This research is realized on the intersection of the architectural territorial and landscaped regards and by the crossing of different methods: the history, the cartography and the opinion poll.

The Novgorod icon of Divine Wisdom is a great innovation of fifteenth-century Russian art. It represents the winged female Sophia flanked by the Theotokos and John the Baptist. Although the icon has a contemporaneous commentary and it exercised a profound influence on Russian cultural history (inspiring, among others, the sophiological theory of the turn of the twentieth century), its meaning, together with the dating and localisation of the first appearance of the iconography, has remained a great art-historical conundrum. This thesis sheds new light on this icon and explores the message, roots, function and historical context of the first, most emblematic and most enigmatic Russian allegorical iconography. In contrast to its recent interpretations as a Trinitarian image with Christ-Angel, it argues that the winged Sophia is the personification of the Orthodox Church. The Novgorod Wisdom icon represents the Church of Hagia Sophia, that is Orthodoxy, as it was perceived in fifteenth-century Rus’: the icon together with its commentary was a visual-textual response to the Florentine Union between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, signed in 1439 but rejected by the Russians in 1441. The thesis is based on detailed interdisciplinary research, utilising simultaneously the methodologies of philology, art history, theology and history. The combined analysis reveals that the great innovation of the Novgorod Sophia icon is that it amalgamates ecclesiological and sophiological iconographies in new ways. Hence the dissertation is also an innovative attempt to survey how Orthodoxy was perceived and visualized in medieval Rus’. It identifies the theological questions that constituted the basis of Russian Orthodox identity in the Middle Ages and reveals the significance of the polemics between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches for the history of Medieval Russian art.

В настоящем исследовании реконструируется система наместничьего управления в Новгороде последней трети XV – XVI века, её структура и компетенция. / In the research work author reconstructed administration of Grand Duke representers in Novgorod in the late XV – XVI century, its structure and competence.

No description available.

No description available.

In the year 1504 the grand prince Ivan III convened a Council of the Church to try several Muscovites and Novgorodians accused of heresy. The Council found the men guilty and they were burnt at the stake in public executions in Novgorod and Moscow. The 1504 trial and execution was the last of three trials of a group of men accused of a 'judaizing' heresy and known to historians as the Zhidovstvuyushchie, or Judaizers. The first trial of the heretics had taken place in 1486 and the second in 1490. The evidence compiled for these trials by Archb'shop Gennady of Novgorod, who claimed to have discovered the heresy, the chronicle accounts for 1486 and 1490, the documents produced by the Councils of 1488 and 1490, and the Prosvetitel' of Iosif of Volokolamsk, a polemical work against the heresy of the 'Novogorod heretics who philosophize judaistically' provide much material for a study of the first documented heresy in the Russian Church. Many historians have been attracted to such a study for, as a review of the historical background and historiography of the heresy in Chapter I shows, the involvement of many of the alleged Judaizers in the affairs of the Church and State during a period of important changes affecting both the Church and the State and the relationship between them, makes an understanding of the heresy important to our view of Russia in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. But the many studies of the heresy of the Judaizers undertaken by historians from the nineteenth century to the present day have failed to yield agreement on the origin and nature of the heresy. It is seen variously as the result of Jewish propaganda in the Russian Church, of the influence of Western Renaissance and Reformation ideas in Russia or, and this is the view which has dominated recent Soviet historiography, as a symptom of an indigenous Reformation (or proto-Reformation) movement affecting the whole of Russian society in the late fifteenth-early sixteenth centuries. The present work is an attempt to resolve the questions posed by studies of the heresy on the basis of a re-examination of primary published and manuscript sources. These fall into two categories: sources presenting the evidence against the Judaizers (evidence of the accusers), and sources associated with the heretics themselves. Chapter II examines the evidence of the accusers in connection with the trials of 1488 and 1490 (the so-called Novgorod stage of the heresy). Most of this evidence comes from the pen of Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod - consideration of the pre-1490 writings of Iosif of Volokolamsk shows that these do not have a direct bearing upon the subject of this study. Gennady's evidence has not received the attention it deserves, for it provides valuable information not only about the heresy he discovered in Novgorod, but also about the procedures accepted in the Russian Church in this period for discovering and identifying any heresy. His evidence explains his choice of the 'judaizing' label and shows that heretical acts had been committed in Novgorod, though not necessarily by the men condemned in 1488 and 1490. Gennady's letters are complemented by the official documents issued by the Councils of 1488 and 1490, and it is clear that the heretics were tried according to properly accepted procedure and that evidence and condemnation was obtained by Gennady with the full co-operation of the grand prince. Gennady remained Archbishop of Novgorod until 1503, but a study of the works produced at his court after 1490 (in Chapter III) provides little evidence of a continuation of his campaign against the heresy. For evidence against the heretics tried in 1504, historians have had to rely on the writings of losif of Volokolamsk, but an examination of his polemical tracts (later incorporated in the Prosvetitel') and letters written before 1504 yields little reliable information about the beliefs of the Judaizers. Even the Prosvetitel', written probably after, and not before the Council of 1504, as has been generally accepted, does little more than reiterate the accusations raised originally against the Novgorod heretics condemned in 1488 and 1490. The evidence of the accusers between 1490 and 1504 thus provides little information on the case presented against the heretics condemned by the Council of 1504. Such information has also been sought in the so-called 'literature of the Judaizers', works written by, or associated with, the men labelled by the accusers as 'judaizing' heretics. Chapter IV examines such works, most of which are associated with the Moscow Judaizers. Several survive in MSS. of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries and it is clear that most were not considered heretical at the time. On the contrary, they belonged to the category of instructive Orthodox literature. Chapter V draws some conclusions from the evidence of the sources. If it is accepted that a heretic is someone whom the established Church recognises as such, the Novgorodians condemned in 1488 and 1490 by a body representative of the Church and according to accepted Orthodox procedure were heretics. However, the available evidence about the Novgorod heretics and about the methods used in identifying and naming the heresy suggests that they were not guilty of a departure from Orthodox Christian beliefs: only of offences against ritual and of criticism of ecclesiastical and, perhaps, secular authority. There is little evidence that the men accused of heresy in 1504 were condemned in accordance with the precedent established by the-case of the Novgorod heretics of 1488 and 1490, or by a body representative of the established Church. The accepted view that they were heretics is not substantiated by the evidence available and the reasons for their condemnation were probably not religious but political.