Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Inorganic fertilizer applications are common practice in commercial agriculture, yet not much is known regarding their interaction with organic matter and soil biota. Much research has been done on the effect of inorganic N on forest litter decomposition, yet very little research has focused on the effect of inorganic fertilizers on crop litters and, to our knowledge, none on composted organic matter. Furthermore none of the research has been done in South Africa. The main aim of this research project was to determine the effect of inorganic fertilizer applications on the decomposition of selected organic matter sources commonly used in South African agriculture and forestry. Two decomposition studies were conducted over a 3-month period, one on composts and the other on plant litters, using a local, sandy soil. In the first experiment a lower quality compost, compost A (C:N ratio, 17.67), and higher quality compost, compost B (C:N ratio, 4.92) was treated with three commercially used fertilizer treatments. Two were typical blends used for vegetable (tomato and cabbage) production: tomato fertilizer (10:2:15) (100 kg N, 20 kg P, 150 kg K per ha) and cabbage fertilizer (5:2:4) (250 kg N, 100 kg P, 200 kg K per ha). The third fertilizer blend, an equivalent mass application of N and P applied at 150 kg of each element per ha, is more commonly used in pastures. In the second experiment, five commonly encountered crop and forestry litters, namely kikuyu grass, lucerne residues, pine needles, sugar cane trash and wheat straw, were selected to represent the labile organic matter sources. The litters were treated with the tomato and cabbage fertilizer applications rates. Both decomposition experiments were conducted under ambient laboratory conditions at field water capacity. Decomposition rates were monitored by determining CO2 emissions, DOC production, β-glucosidase and polyphenol oxidase activity (PPO). At the start and end of decomposition study, loss on ignition was performed to assess the total loss of OM. Based on the results obtained from these two experiments, it was concluded that the addition of high N containing inorganic fertilizers enhanced the decomposition of both composted and labile organic matter. For both compost and plant litters, DOC production was greatly enhanced with the addition of inorganic fertilizers regardless of the organic matter quality. The conclusion can be made that inherent N in organic matter played a role in the response of decomposition to inorganic fertilizer application with organic matter low in inherent N showing greater responses in decomposition changes. For labile organic matter polyphenol and cellulose content also played a role in the responses observed from inorganic fertilizer applications. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Anorganiese kunsmis toedieningss is algemene praktyk in die kommersiële landbou sektor,maar nog min is bekend oor hul interaksie met organiese materiaal en grond biota. Baie navorsing is reeds oor die uitwerking van anorganiese N op woud en plantasiereste se ontbinding gedoen. Baie min navorsing het gefokus op die uitwerking van anorganiese kunsmis op die gewasreste en tot ons kennis, is daar geen navorsing gedoen op die invloed van anorganiese kunsmis op gekomposteer organiese material nie. Verder is geeneen van die navorsing studies is in Suid-Afrika gedoen nie. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsingsprojek was om die effek van anorganiese kunsmis toedienings op die ontbinding van geselekteerde organiese materiaal bronne, wat algemeen gebruik word in die Suid-Afrikaanse landbou en bosbou, te bepaal. Twee ontbinding studies is gedoen oor 'n 3-maande-tydperk, een op kompos en die ander op die plantreste, met die gebruik van 'n plaaslike, sanderige grond. In die eerste eksperiment is ‘n laer gehalte kompos, kompos A (C: N verhouding, 17.67), en 'n hoër gehalte kompos, kompos B (C: N verhouding, 4.92) met drie kommersieel anorganiese bemesting behandelings behandel. Twee was tipiese versnitte gebruik vir die groente (tamatie en kool) produksie: tamatie kunsmis (10: 2:15) (100 kg N, 20 kg P, 150 kg K per ha) en kool kunsmis (5: 2: 4) (250 kg N, 100 kg P, 200 kg K per ha). Die derde kunsmis versnit was 'n ekwivalente massa toepassing van N en P van 150 kg van elke element per ha, wat meer algemeen gebruik word in weiding. In die tweede eksperiment was vyf algemeen gewas en bosbou reste, naamlik kikoejoegras, lusern reste, dennenaalde, suikerriet reste en koring strooi, gekies om die labiele organiese materiaal bronne te verteenwoordig. Die reste is met die tamatie en kool kunsmis toedienings behandel. Beide ontbinding eksperimente is uitgevoer onder normale laboratorium toestande by veldwaterkapasiteit. Ontbinding tempo is deur die bepaling van die CO2-vrystellings, opgelosde organiese koolstof (OOK) produksie, β-glukosidase en polifenol oksidase aktiwiteit (PPO) gemonitor. Aan die begin en einde van ontbinding studie, is verlies op ontbranding uitgevoer om die totale verlies van OM te evalueer. Gebaseer op die resultate van hierdie twee eksperimente, was die gevolgtrekking dat die toevoeging van hoë N bevattende anorganiese bemestingstowwe die ontbinding van beide komposte en plant reste verhoog. Vir beide kompos en plantreste word OOK produksie verhoog met die toevoeging van anorganiese bemesting, ongeag van die organiese materiaal gehalte. Die gevolgtrekking kan gemaak word dat die inherente N in organiese materiaal 'n rol gespeel het in die reaksie van ontbinding op anorganiese bemesting toedienings met die grootste reaksie in organiese material laag in inherente N. Vir labiele organiese material het polifenol en sellulose inhoud ook 'n rol gespeel in die reaksie waargeneeming op anorganiese bemesting.

O pinhão manso é uma oleaginosa que apresenta grande potencial para se tornar uma cultura rentável e capaz de ser utilizada na fabricação de biodiesel, porém faltam informações sobre práticas de cultivo, tais como sua nutrição mineral, irrigação e uso de herbicidas. O presente estudo foi realizado em três experimentos com os seguintes objetivos: a) avaliar o desempenho fisiológico e produtivo de plantas de pinhão manso em resposta a diferentes níveis de adubação NPK e diferentes lâminas de água no solo; e b) avaliar a seletividade de diferentes herbicidas nesta cultura e o comportamento das plantas em condições de pré e pós-emergência. Todos os experimentos foram desenvolvidos em condições de casa de vegetação em Piracicaba, SP, Brasil, empregando um delineamento experimental em blocos cazualizados. No experimento em que se avaliou adubo e água, foram testados doze tratamentos com quatro repetições, constando de quatro níveis do fator dose de adubação NPK e três níveis do fator lâmina de irrigação. Foram avaliados: índice de velocidade de emergência (IVE); altura das plantas (AP); diâmetro de caule (DC); número de folhas por plantas (NF); presença de flores e frutos (PFL e PFR); matéria seca da parte aérea e da raiz (MSPA e MSR); área foliar (AF); número de ramificações por planta (NR). A produção da cultura foi maior quando o conteúdo de água no solo se aproximou da Capacidade de Campo e o desenvolvimento das plantas, em sua fase inicial, foi reduzido com o aumento das doses de adubo no solo devido a salinidade destes. Nos experimentos que visavam avaliar os herbicidas testaram-se em condições de pós-emergência (flumioxazin, bentazon, lactofen e trifloxusulfuron-soudium), com cinco repetições, e de préemergência (flumioxazin, clomazone, metribuzin, sulfentrazone e s-metolachlor), com oito repetições, foi avaliado o controle percentual, altura e diâmetro de caule das plantas; número de folhas e índice SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) aos 7, 14, 21 e 28 dias após a aplicação do herbicida (DAA) para o experimento em pósemergência e aos 15, 30 e 60 DAA para o experimento em pré-emergência; massa seca residual aos 28 e 60 DAA para os experimentos em pós e em pré-emergência, respectivamente. As plantas tratadas com os herbicidas flumioxazin e s-metolachlor tiveram um comportamento similar às plantas testemunhas, então se pode considerar que estes herbicidas foram mais seletivos à cultura do pinhão manso, neste estudo, em condições de pré-emergência. Em condições de pós-emergência o herbicida bentazon foi o mais seletivo à cultura do pinhão manso, principalmente em relação às variáveis área foliar, matéria fresca e seca da parte aérea, que se igualaram com a testemunha. Para os herbicidas que causaram menores danos às plantas, são necessários estudos acerca de melhores dosagens, para que possam ser indicados ou não para a cultura em condições de campo; e em condições de pós-emergência, houve uma maior recuperação das injúrias nas plantas causadas pelos herbicidas em comparação com pré-emergência. / The Jatropha is an oilseed crop that has great potential to become a cash crop and can be used to produce biodiesel, but lacks information on cultivation practices, such as its nutrition, irrigation and herbicide use. This study was conducted through three experiments with the following objectives: a) evaluate the physiological performance and productivity of jatropha plants in response to different levels of NPK and different irrigation water depths in the soil, and b) to evaluate the selectivity of herbicides by this crop and the behavior of plants in pre- and post-emergence. All experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, using a randomized complete block design. In the experiment we evaluated fertilizer and water levels in twelve treatments with four replications and four levels of NPK and three levels of irrigation. We evaluated: emergency speed index (ESI), plant height (PH), stem diameter (SD), number of leaves per plant (NL), presence of flowers and fruits (PFL and PFR), dry matter of shoot and root (DMS and DMR), leaf area (LA), number of branches per plant (NB). Crop yield was higher when soil water content approached field capacity, and plant development was reduced in its initial phase with increasing doses of fertilizer due to soil salinity. In the experiments aiming to assess the herbicides, tests in postemergence (flumioxazin, bentazon, lactofen and trifloxusulfuron-soudium) were made with five replicates, and in pre-emergence (flumioxazin, clomazone, metribuzin, sulfentrazone and s-metolachlor) eight replications. Measurements were made in percent of the control, of the height and diameter of the plant, leaf number and SPAD index (Soil Plant Analysis Development) at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after application (DAA) for the experiment in post-emergence, and 15, 30 and 60 DAA for the experiment in preemergence; residual dry matter at 28 and 60 DAA for the experiments in post and preemergence, respectively, height and diameter of plant, leaf number and SPAD index. Plants treated with the herbicides flumioxazin and s-metolachlor had a similar behavior to the control, so that we can consider that these herbicides were more selective for the cultivation of jatropha in the study of pre-emergence. In post-emergence the herbicide bentazon was the most selective, mainly in relation to the variables leaf area, fresh and dry weight of shoots, that were equal to the control. For herbicides that caused minor damage to plants, more studies are needed on doses, so that they can be recommended or not for the crop in the field, and in post-emergence, there was a greater recovery from the injuries caused in the plants by the herbicides as compared to pre-emergence application.

As técnicas utilizadas na agricultura de precisão agregam não só ferramentas para o diagnóstico das causas da variabilidade encontrada nas lavouras, como também soluções para o convívio ou correção dessa variabilidade. O Brasil é o maior produtor mundial de café e ainda hoje apresenta um mercado em franca expansão. Por isso, em razão do potencial produtivo e da lucratividade da cultura do café, atualmente o interesse pelas técnicas de manejo localizado e a procura por novas tecnologias estão aumentando. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a influência do manejo localizado das adubações de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio, na produtividade e no estado nutricional do cafeeiro. Para isso, foram utilizadas quatro áreas comerciais, sendo uma localizada no município de Gália, SP, conduzida durante quatro safras, e três no município de Patrocínio, MG, conduzidas durante três safras. Estabeleceram-se dois tratamentos para testar a hipótese do aumento da produtividade e a manutenção do estado nutricional do cafeeiro com aplicações localizadas dos nutrientes nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio, em doses variáveis. Como resultados foram observados que as adubações de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio aplicadas em doses variáveis aumentaram a produtividade do cafeeiro em 240,0 kg ha-1, quando somadas todas as safras. Houve redução do consumo do nitrogênio em 134,7 kg ha-1 e do potássio em 82,0 kg ha-1, e para o nutriente fósforo ocorreu um aumento no consumo de 65,0 kg ha-1. A avaliação do estado nutricional das plantas de cafeeiro mostrou-se apropriada para possíveis correções das doses dos nutrientes durante a adubação. / The precision agriculture techniques, besides adding tools to identify the causes of variability found in the fields, provide solutions for this variability to be corrected or for the best management solution when the variability is unavoidable. Brazil is the biggest producer of coffee within an increasing market. Therefore, because of the potential yield and profit of coffee crop, currently the interest in site specific management techniques and the demand for new technologies are increasing. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of site specific management of fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) in the yield and in the nutritional status of coffee crop. Four commercial areas were used, one located in Gália, SP, and three in Patrocínio, MG. Two treatments were established to test the hypothesis of higher yield and maintenance of the nutritional status of coffee with site specific fertilizer rates of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The results indicated that nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients applied in variable rates increased the yield in 240.0 kg ha-1, considering all the harvesting seasons. Nitrogen fertilizer consumption was reduced in 134.7 kg ha-1 and potassium in 82.0 kg ha-1, on the other hand phosphorus consumption increased in 65.0 kg ha-1. The evaluation of nutritional status of coffee plants was appropriate for possible corrections of nutrient supplying during fertilization.

As técnicas utilizadas na agricultura de precisão agregam não só ferramentas para o diagnóstico das causas da variabilidade encontrada nas lavouras, como também soluções para o convívio ou correção dessa variabilidade. O Brasil é o maior produtor mundial de café e ainda hoje apresenta um mercado em franca expansão. Por isso, em razão do potencial produtivo e da lucratividade da cultura do café, atualmente o interesse pelas técnicas de manejo localizado e a procura por novas tecnologias estão aumentando. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a influência do manejo localizado das adubações de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio, na produtividade e no estado nutricional do cafeeiro. Para isso, foram utilizadas quatro áreas comerciais, sendo uma localizada no município de Gália, SP, conduzida durante quatro safras, e três no município de Patrocínio, MG, conduzidas durante três safras. Estabeleceram-se dois tratamentos para testar a hipótese do aumento da produtividade e a manutenção do estado nutricional do cafeeiro com aplicações localizadas dos nutrientes nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio, em doses variáveis. Como resultados foram observados que as adubações de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio aplicadas em doses variáveis aumentaram a produtividade do cafeeiro em 240,0 kg ha-1, quando somadas todas as safras. Houve redução do consumo do nitrogênio em 134,7 kg ha-1 e do potássio em 82,0 kg ha-1, e para o nutriente fósforo ocorreu um aumento no consumo de 65,0 kg ha-1. A avaliação do estado nutricional das plantas de cafeeiro mostrou-se apropriada para possíveis correções das doses dos nutrientes durante a adubação. / The precision agriculture techniques, besides adding tools to identify the causes of variability found in the fields, provide solutions for this variability to be corrected or for the best management solution when the variability is unavoidable. Brazil is the biggest producer of coffee within an increasing market. Therefore, because of the potential yield and profit of coffee crop, currently the interest in site specific management techniques and the demand for new technologies are increasing. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of site specific management of fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) in the yield and in the nutritional status of coffee crop. Four commercial areas were used, one located in Gália, SP, and three in Patrocínio, MG. Two treatments were established to test the hypothesis of higher yield and maintenance of the nutritional status of coffee with site specific fertilizer rates of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The results indicated that nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients applied in variable rates increased the yield in 240.0 kg ha-1, considering all the harvesting seasons. Nitrogen fertilizer consumption was reduced in 134.7 kg ha-1 and potassium in 82.0 kg ha-1, on the other hand phosphorus consumption increased in 65.0 kg ha-1. The evaluation of nutritional status of coffee plants was appropriate for possible corrections of nutrient supplying during fertilization.

O pinhão manso é uma oleaginosa que apresenta grande potencial para se tornar uma cultura rentável e capaz de ser utilizada na fabricação de biodiesel, porém faltam informações sobre práticas de cultivo, tais como sua nutrição mineral, irrigação e uso de herbicidas. O presente estudo foi realizado em três experimentos com os seguintes objetivos: a) avaliar o desempenho fisiológico e produtivo de plantas de pinhão manso em resposta a diferentes níveis de adubação NPK e diferentes lâminas de água no solo; e b) avaliar a seletividade de diferentes herbicidas nesta cultura e o comportamento das plantas em condições de pré e pós-emergência. Todos os experimentos foram desenvolvidos em condições de casa de vegetação em Piracicaba, SP, Brasil, empregando um delineamento experimental em blocos cazualizados. No experimento em que se avaliou adubo e água, foram testados doze tratamentos com quatro repetições, constando de quatro níveis do fator dose de adubação NPK e três níveis do fator lâmina de irrigação. Foram avaliados: índice de velocidade de emergência (IVE); altura das plantas (AP); diâmetro de caule (DC); número de folhas por plantas (NF); presença de flores e frutos (PFL e PFR); matéria seca da parte aérea e da raiz (MSPA e MSR); área foliar (AF); número de ramificações por planta (NR). A produção da cultura foi maior quando o conteúdo de água no solo se aproximou da Capacidade de Campo e o desenvolvimento das plantas, em sua fase inicial, foi reduzido com o aumento das doses de adubo no solo devido a salinidade destes. Nos experimentos que visavam avaliar os herbicidas testaram-se em condições de pós-emergência (flumioxazin, bentazon, lactofen e trifloxusulfuron-soudium), com cinco repetições, e de préemergência (flumioxazin, clomazone, metribuzin, sulfentrazone e s-metolachlor), com oito repetições, foi avaliado o controle percentual, altura e diâmetro de caule das plantas; número de folhas e índice SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) aos 7, 14, 21 e 28 dias após a aplicação do herbicida (DAA) para o experimento em pósemergência e aos 15, 30 e 60 DAA para o experimento em pré-emergência; massa seca residual aos 28 e 60 DAA para os experimentos em pós e em pré-emergência, respectivamente. As plantas tratadas com os herbicidas flumioxazin e s-metolachlor tiveram um comportamento similar às plantas testemunhas, então se pode considerar que estes herbicidas foram mais seletivos à cultura do pinhão manso, neste estudo, em condições de pré-emergência. Em condições de pós-emergência o herbicida bentazon foi o mais seletivo à cultura do pinhão manso, principalmente em relação às variáveis área foliar, matéria fresca e seca da parte aérea, que se igualaram com a testemunha. Para os herbicidas que causaram menores danos às plantas, são necessários estudos acerca de melhores dosagens, para que possam ser indicados ou não para a cultura em condições de campo; e em condições de pós-emergência, houve uma maior recuperação das injúrias nas plantas causadas pelos herbicidas em comparação com pré-emergência. / The Jatropha is an oilseed crop that has great potential to become a cash crop and can be used to produce biodiesel, but lacks information on cultivation practices, such as its nutrition, irrigation and herbicide use. This study was conducted through three experiments with the following objectives: a) evaluate the physiological performance and productivity of jatropha plants in response to different levels of NPK and different irrigation water depths in the soil, and b) to evaluate the selectivity of herbicides by this crop and the behavior of plants in pre- and post-emergence. All experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, using a randomized complete block design. In the experiment we evaluated fertilizer and water levels in twelve treatments with four replications and four levels of NPK and three levels of irrigation. We evaluated: emergency speed index (ESI), plant height (PH), stem diameter (SD), number of leaves per plant (NL), presence of flowers and fruits (PFL and PFR), dry matter of shoot and root (DMS and DMR), leaf area (LA), number of branches per plant (NB). Crop yield was higher when soil water content approached field capacity, and plant development was reduced in its initial phase with increasing doses of fertilizer due to soil salinity. In the experiments aiming to assess the herbicides, tests in postemergence (flumioxazin, bentazon, lactofen and trifloxusulfuron-soudium) were made with five replicates, and in pre-emergence (flumioxazin, clomazone, metribuzin, sulfentrazone and s-metolachlor) eight replications. Measurements were made in percent of the control, of the height and diameter of the plant, leaf number and SPAD index (Soil Plant Analysis Development) at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after application (DAA) for the experiment in post-emergence, and 15, 30 and 60 DAA for the experiment in preemergence; residual dry matter at 28 and 60 DAA for the experiments in post and preemergence, respectively, height and diameter of plant, leaf number and SPAD index. Plants treated with the herbicides flumioxazin and s-metolachlor had a similar behavior to the control, so that we can consider that these herbicides were more selective for the cultivation of jatropha in the study of pre-emergence. In post-emergence the herbicide bentazon was the most selective, mainly in relation to the variables leaf area, fresh and dry weight of shoots, that were equal to the control. For herbicides that caused minor damage to plants, more studies are needed on doses, so that they can be recommended or not for the crop in the field, and in post-emergence, there was a greater recovery from the injuries caused in the plants by the herbicides as compared to pre-emergence application.

MSCAGR (Soil Sciece) / Department of Soil Science / In most parts of Limpopo Province of South Africa, crop yields are low and continue to decrease due to decline in soil fertility, which has been identified as a major constraint to crop production. Therefore, there is a pressing need for soil amendments such as the application of biochar, which has the potential to improve soil fertility due to its physical and chemical properties. Biochar is the product of incomplete combustion of biomass in the absence of oxygen. The overall objective of the study was to determine the effects of biochar and NPK fertilizer on maize performance and selected soil nutrient levels. A 3x2 factorial experiment was conducted at the School of Agriculture Experimental Farm for two consecutive seasons (2015/16 and 2016/17 seasons). Treatments consisted of biochar applied at three levels, viz. 0, 10 and 20 t/ha and NPK inorganic fertilizer applied at two rates viz. NPK0 (zero NPK fertilizer) and NPK1 {N (150 kg/ha) P (50 kg/ha) K (20 kg/ha)}. The treatments were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and replicated three times. Maize cultivar (DKC 2147) was used as the test crop. Maize growth and yield measurements assessed included: plant height (cm), stem diameter (cm), number of leaves, leaf area, dry biomass (kg/ha), nutrient uptake, cob yield, grain yield and harvest index. Soil samples were collected from 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm soil depths at the end of each season to determine total N, P, K nutrient levels in the soil. Data collected was subjected to two-way analysis of variance using the general linear model (GLM) procedure of Genstat software version 17. Comparison of means was done using the Standard Error of Deviation (SED) method at 5% level of significance (p<0.05). Biochar and NPK fertilizer had no effect on total N and exchangeable K at all soil depths in 2015/16 and 2016/17 seasons. Biochar had no effect on phosphorus at all soil depths in 2015/16 and at 0-10 cm soil depth in 2016/17 season. The effect of biochar and NPK fertilizer was highly significant (p<0,001) on available P at 10-20 cm soil depth in 2016/17 season. Significant interactive effect of biochar and NPK fertilizer on soil total N at 10-20 cm (in 2015/16 season), available P and exchangeable K at 10-20 cm soil depth in 2016/17 season was also observed. Plant growth parameters increased with biochar addition at 20 t/ha and NPK1 (150 kg N/ha, 50 kg P/ha, 20 kg K/ha) fertilizer. The results of this study showed that biochar application at the rate of 10 and 20 t/ha has the potential to influence selected soil nutrient levels, maize growth, yield and yield components with and without NPK fertilizer application. Since this study was conducted over two seasons and biochar properties changes over a long-term period, more research is needed to evaluate the effect of biochar on soil nutrient levels and maize growth, nutrient uptake and yield over a long period of time. / NRF