Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in the United States. Policies that affect agriculture therefore have the potential to have a large effect on the overall use of water. Crop insurance is one such policy, which was found to significantly increase water use in the state of Texas. Much, but not all of this effect can be explained by an increase in planting density, and results vary widely by crop and by region.

Mining and mineral exploration have been a source of considerable tension in the developing world and specifically where they take place on indigenous lands. This thesis investigates the nature of the relationships between different stakeholders to a mineral exploration project in Fiji. It is an examination of the obstacles to community participation, a key component of even-handed development, in the planning and policy-making process. It is argued that the Namosi exploration project has been the locus for emergent social disruption. It is also argued, that the causes of this conflict are anchored in a flawed process of policy-making between the state and exploration companies and the contest for authority between key actors, which has led to the disempowerment of some villagers from both within and outside the community. Equally, the political ideology of the state and the contentious history of mining in Fiji, have played a part in the tendency towards social conflict in association with minerals exploration. / The starting point for analysis has been a comparison with the social conflict literature as it applies to Papua New Guinea. The purpose has been first, to confirm the relevance of that work to situations encountered in Fiji, and second, to provide a broader critique of the literature than previously available; one that further develops understanding of social conflict related to natural resource development. Given the circumstances of state and village politics in Melanesia, the question is asked, whether the normative 'fully realised communities' anticipated by Selznick in his communitarian idyll can be achieved. The thesis concludes that the nature of community involvement in development planning for mineral exploitation, creates a very different type of participation than that outlined in the literature of mining corporations and states. Although some actors have recourse to other means of empowering themselves, this is not a prelude to development for the wider community.

The debate on global warming is over (Stix, 2006 p24). The global community must now find ways to reduce greenhouse emissions, particularly from energy generation. Wind energy provides one of the potential solutions to generate renewable energy without creating harmful greenhouse gases. Wind energy is the fastest growing energy generation industry globally (‘Operating wind power capacity' 2006a). This rapid growth is being driven by increasing global energy demand, commitment from governments globally to international agreements including the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1997) to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, as well as individual country commitments to mandatory renewable energy targets. Australia, whilst being a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, has so far failed to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. In Australia, wind energy development to date has been driven primarily by the development of the Mandatory Renewable Energy Target (MRET) under the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000. This requires a commitment to 2% of total electricity generation (9,500GW) to be derived from renewable energy sources by the year 2010 (Warwryk, undated). It is now understood, that the current federal obligation to renewable energy is now oversubscribed, and consequently the likelihood of further wind energy projects being developed is highly limited (Brazzale 2005). External to the government commitment to renewable energy, the development of wind energy projects requires a range of inputs including, but not limited to; an understanding of the wind resource, security of land, access to suitable electricity transmission grid, a market for the electricity, access to suitable technology and a level of community support. Whilst the literature related to project management and risk management is extensive, the literature related to the risks associated with wind energy development in Australia is limited. This research then seeks to fill a void that asks the question; How can project managers minimise the risk associated with wind energy developments in Australia? To investigate this research problem, comparative case study analysis was adopted as a methodology utilising a structured interview process of project managers responsible for the development of 8 Australian wind energy projects. This research shows that the greatest risk to Australian projects is the lack of security associated with the current federal legislation and the consequent loss of market value of the power from wind energy projects. A number of additional primary and secondary risks are identified by the interview participants, and the research is able to draw out three common themes of risk management strategies. These three themes were categorised as conservatism, due diligence and proactivism. This study contributes to the research associated with project management, risk management and wind energy development. This insight into the Australian wind energy industry provides policy makers, educators and stakeholders with information to assist in improving the political, economic and social environment for further wind energy development, in order to mitigate against further greenhouse gas emission and combat global warming.

The debate on global warming is over (Stix, 2006 p24). The global community must now find ways to reduce greenhouse emissions, particularly from energy generation. Wind energy provides one of the potential solutions to generate renewable energy without creating harmful greenhouse gases. Wind energy is the fastest growing energy generation industry globally (‘Operating wind power capacity' 2006a). This rapid growth is being driven by increasing global energy demand, commitment from governments globally to international agreements including the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1997) to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, as well as individual country commitments to mandatory renewable energy targets. Australia, whilst being a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, has so far failed to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. In Australia, wind energy development to date has been driven primarily by the development of the Mandatory Renewable Energy Target (MRET) under the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000. This requires a commitment to 2% of total electricity generation (9,500GW) to be derived from renewable energy sources by the year 2010 (Warwryk, undated). It is now understood, that the current federal obligation to renewable energy is now oversubscribed, and consequently the likelihood of further wind energy projects being developed is highly limited (Brazzale 2005). External to the government commitment to renewable energy, the development of wind energy projects requires a range of inputs including, but not limited to; an understanding of the wind resource, security of land, access to suitable electricity transmission grid, a market for the electricity, access to suitable technology and a level of community support. Whilst the literature related to project management and risk management is extensive, the literature related to the risks associated with wind energy development in Australia is limited. This research then seeks to fill a void that asks the question; How can project managers minimise the risk associated with wind energy developments in Australia? To investigate this research problem, comparative case study analysis was adopted as a methodology utilising a structured interview process of project managers responsible for the development of 8 Australian wind energy projects. This research shows that the greatest risk to Australian projects is the lack of security associated with the current federal legislation and the consequent loss of market value of the power from wind energy projects. A number of additional primary and secondary risks are identified by the interview participants, and the research is able to draw out three common themes of risk management strategies. These three themes were categorised as conservatism, due diligence and proactivism. This study contributes to the research associated with project management, risk management and wind energy development. This insight into the Australian wind energy industry provides policy makers, educators and stakeholders with information to assist in improving the political, economic and social environment for further wind energy development, in order to mitigate against further greenhouse gas emission and combat global warming.

Changes in species abundance and richness, stand structure, and species responses to habitat characteristics including disturbance intensity, were investigated in 28 permanent sample plots (PSP) covering a total area of about 6.2 hectares of subtropical rainforests in north-east New South Wales, Australia. The disturbance that occurred over 36 years previously varied from unlogged (controls), through single-tree selection (light), moderate selection and repeated single-tree selection to intensive (heavy) logging. Multivariate and univariate approaches were used to investigate changes in various plant groups, including all vascular plants, regenerating species (trees and understorey species > 1.3 m in height and < 10 cm diameter at 1.3 m above the ground level (dbh)), juvenile trees (regenerating species capable of attaining at least 10 cm dbh), and trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh. In addition, dynamic parameters (recruitment, growth and mortality) were estimated using hierarchical multilevel modelling and parameter estimates used to simulate behaviour of the subtropical rainforest tree species in unlogged and logged stands, both within and beyond the range of available data.Chronological post-disturbance responses and changes in species abundance and richness as well as stand structure for trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh were investigated using 20 PSP in a bid to better understand rainforest post-disturbance regeneration. The results portrayed minor and gradual ecological changes in the undisturbed controls analogous with natural forest dynamics where the changes were not significant. In logged sites, initial gradual changes were followed with more rapid and significant changes.In both unlogged and logged stands, the changes proceeded through three clearly identifiable stages. The first two stages lasted between 5 and 15 years each. In the initial stage, the number of individuals decreased in species with high frequency mainly in the shade tolerant species, with little or no change in species richness. In the second stage, species abundance and richness changed due to localised species turnover, replacement and losses with very little recruitment, and the numbers of both speciesand individuals declined to minima. In the third stage, due to recruitment beyond the 10 cm dbh, the net loss of species and trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh were halted and reversed, and species diversity and abundance began to return to pre-disturbance levels.Species abundance and diversity for both shade tolerant and intolerant species in less intensively logged sites (single-tree selection logging) have recovered to levels comparable with that observed in the controls, but more intensively logged sites have not recovered to similar levels. Increased logging intensity was associated with increased and decreased densities in the shade intolerant and ¨Ctolerant species respectively. It was evident that stand structure in logged sites had yet to recover to levels comparable with that of unlogged controls. It appears the restoration of floristic diversity to levels similar to that of intact primary forest takes considerably less time than structural recovery. Changes in regeneration patterns in a subtropical rainforest in north-east New South Wales were investigated for a 13-year period during the 3rd and 4th decades following repeated single-tree selection logging. Multivariate and univariate analyses results showed that there were no significant differences in floristic assemblages within and between censuses; however, two contrasting trends of changes in plant groups were detected. In trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh, the stem density and species richness increased in shade tolerant group, and while stem density increased in the shade intolerant group, species richness decreased during the study period. Amongst smaller sized species including trees (< 10 cm dbh), a general decrease in species richness was observed along with significant changes in stem densities (P = 0.03) with the number of individuals in the shade tolerant species increasing, while that of both shade intolerant and vine species decreased. Excluding the vines and understorey species from the broader regenerating species group, revealed a decrease in species richness in juvenile canopy tree, and a significant change in densities (P = 0.004) with the number of individuals in shade tolerant increasing, while that of shade intolerant trees decreased. A comparison between the canopy trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh and juvenile canopy trees group showed that these groups were tending towards similar floristic assemblages. These results suggest gradual replacement of shade intolerant by shade tolerant species as stands were tending toward later stages of recovery within the regeneration. The results also show that the inclusion of regenerating species in long-term studies is both complementary to the larger plant component and more revealing of both trends and changes.Species-specific estimates of shade tolerance and size structure at maturity derived from observations on 23 plots were used to intuitively group 277 vascular plant species into 3 main groups including full floristic (all together), shade tolerant and intolerant groups. The shade tolerant and intolerant groups were further grouped into smaller plants groups depending on the development stage and maximum size at maturity. These groups included regenerating species, juvenile trees, and trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh. Multivariate analyses of these nominated groups revealed that floristic assemblages were significantly associated with environmental gradients based on simple site characteristics.At the landscape (larger) scale, the floristic assemblages were significantly different between low (200-400), mid (400-700) and high altitude (over 700 meters above sea level). In addition, abundance of shade tolerant species including Doryphora sassafras Endl, Orites excelsa R.Br and Caldcluvia paniculosa (F.Muell) Hoogland was positively correlated with the altitudinal gradient. At the smaller (local) scale, intensively logged sites where large gaps were created had recovered their species richness, but effects of past logging were evident in trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh, especially trees greater than 50 cm dbh where species abundance in shade tolerant decreased significantly. Less intensively logged sites at mid altitude where a few stems were removed had recovered their species richness in respect to trees ¡Ý 10 cm dbh, but the small gaps created may have healed quickly for appreciable regeneration response to occur, as juvenile trees component was significantly different to that of the (unlogged) controls.The abundance of shade intolerant and juvenile shade tolerant tree species increased in concert with levels of disturbance and abundance of shade intolerant species such as Duboisia myoporoides R.Br, Acacia melanoxylon R.Br, Rubus moorei F.Muell and R. hilli F.Muell was positively correlated with the disturbance gradient. Increase in number of individuals of certain tree species was positively correlated with both disturbance intensity and topography (mid slope through lower slope to creek/gully), but negatively correlated with aspect (NE - NW). We concluded that logged sites are yet to recover their pre-logging stand structure and rainforest tree species were found in sites where favourable recruitment and growth conditions were the encountered. These results show that logged sites had not yet regenerated to the pre-logging stand structure. They also show that habitat characteristics including history of disturbance and topography can influence the floristic assemblages in the sub-tropical rainforests at both the small (local) and large (geographic) scales. This supports the environmental control model that states ¡°species are found at sites where they encounter favourable living conditions¡±. Site characteristics as surrogate for some of these favourable living conditions were identified as useful potential variables to investigate the rainforest dynamic parameters (growth, recruitment and mortality) in both logged and unlogged stands.A quantitative model was developed using over 3 decades of data to describe and simulate the dynamics including recruitment, growth and mortality in unlogged stands and others subjected to different silvicultural regimes in uneven-aged mixed-species subtropical rainforests of north-eastern New South Wales. Hierarchical multilevel regression analyses including Poisson, Binomial and multinomial logit regression were used to estimate the rainforest dynamic parameters based on the assumption that trees perform differently in space and time, thus there are variations at both the plot and tree by measurement levels.Variations at the tree level required the botanical identity of trees to species level, and then the species-specific size at maturity and shade tolerance were used to classify species into 5 groups, each consisting of species with similar ecological characteristics. These groups were labelled as emergent and shade tolerant main canopy, shade tolerant mid canopy, shade tolerant understoreys, moderate shade tolerant and persistent, and shade intolerant pioneer tree species. Significant variables at the plot level including site characteristics such as topography (elevation, slope and aspect), and past disturbance were used as explanatory variables in species group models. The final model is as a classical matrix management-oriented model with an ecological touch and maximum size-dependent parameters of ingrowth and outgrowth. The model provides a tool to simulate stand performance after logging and to assess silvicultural prescriptions before they are applied in these types of forests.The simulations indicate that full recovery following a logging intensity where 47% of the overstorey basal area is removed with a checkerboard of logged and unlogged patches (group selection) on a 120-year cycle could enable sustainable timber production without compromising the ecological integrity in these forests. Following single-tree selection (33%), recovery takes about 150 years, and more intensive harvesting practices where 50-78% overstorey basal area is removed may take 180-220 years to recover. Pre-harvest climber cutting coupled with poisoning of non-timber species followed by intensive logging of merchantable trees would allow logging on a 300-year cycle. Shorter logging cycles may lead to changes in the forest structure and floristic composition where the overall species density is low with higher density of shade intolerant species.

Thesis (M.A.) - Carleton University, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 137-146). Also available in electronic format on the Internet.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2007. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 272-296). Also available online in Scholars' Bank; and in ProQuest, free to University of Oregon users.

State energy plans are created at the request of a sitting governor or State Legislature in order to provide guidance set goals for the state’s energy sector. These plans will be critical indicators of energy trends such as the future market share of coal, natural gas, and renewables. If the future of energy in the United States is to be remotely sustainable, low-carbon policies must headline state plans. The strength of a state’s energy plan in terms of sustainability is directly related to that state’s willingness to prioritize and commit to incorporating energy sources that produce negligible carbon emissions. Questions about the role of efficiency can be answered by the political need for short-run payoffs that do not necessarily align with the long-term goals of sustainability (Kern & Smith, 2008). The nature of the American political system is that representatives want to be able to bring immediate results to their constituents, results that are usually shown in the short-run by efficiency programs. While the state energy plans in question (California, Arizona, Pennsylvania, Iowa, South Carolina, and Virginia) engage with sustainability at varying levels of strength, they deal mostly in weak sustainability by failing to commit to renewables. Historical reliance on energy efficiency and its accompanying theories of growth has created a climate in which state energy plans do not generally realize their enormous potential to lead the national transition away from fossil fuels.

Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is considered a win-win approach to reconcile conservation with natural resource use. CBNRM aims to accomplish conservation whilst prioritising development and contributing to poverty alleviation. This study analysed the different components of a CBNRM initiative, Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary (BWS), located in western Uganda. The study was carried out by interviewing the managing committee members (n= 8) as well as local households (n= 68) regarding the manner in which the project works, and the associated benefits and constraints. The main management issues recognised were a lack of monitoring and committee cohesiveness. The information gathered through the household survey enabled the calculation of the value of local livelihood options. This was done on the premise that conservation is better accepted when land users realise the economic value of natural resources. The average annual value of household livelihoods was represented by 30% crop production, 57% natural resource use, and 13% livestock. Lastly, wetland assessments were performed using the WET-Health and WET-EcoServices methodologies from the Wetland Management Series. These assessments indicated that the impacts of local livelihoods on the wetland were currently low but potential issues could arise with the increasing human population density. Ultimately, BWS presents both environmental and social costs and benefits. With a detailed and interdisciplinary method specific recommendations of improvement can be made to reduce such costs and further reconcile the conservation of Bigodi Wetland with local natural resource use..

Through this study, we aimed at reflecting upon the environmental diagnosis of an urban hydrographic basin. The theoretical approach has been based on the technique of pressure-state-impact-response (PEIR) in order to obtain quality rates through physical, environmental and socioeconomic characteristics of the Arroio Cadena sub-basin located in Santa Maria, central region of Rio Grande do Sul. This structure has as its general philosophy to analyze environmental problems. The art state was researched based on 17 environmental indicators of varied themes through geoprocessing linked to processes of acquisition of descriptive features from the studied region. The indicators qualification and quantification were based on the condition that the human activities produce pressure upon the environment that can affect its state, which, in turn, brings impact to society and to ecosystem, making the government, organizations and population in general do something towards the system, searching for the stability of it. From these indicators on, scores for each hydrographic basin unit were generated and they were specified through a previous, technical and specialized knowledge in order to write up the weight of each study feature. On the following, the implications of each index on the environmental quality were checked, making out a letter of environmental quality , which presents a compilation of study features through the algebra of maps, besides the treatment of the final result by inferior kriking that led to examine the uncertainties included in the proposed method. The final study is composed by a special database that can be extended and over questioned in several areas of the scientific knowledge. The results can help the decision makers understand the consequences of their decisions upon the environment, as well as they can help organize the processes of decision making in a more correct and democratic way. / Por meio deste trabalho, visamos a refletir sobre o diagnóstico ambiental de uma bacia hidrográfica urbana. A fundamentação teórica foi baseada na técnica de pressão-estado-impacto-resposta (PEIR) para obtenção de índices de qualidade por meio das características físicas, ambientais e socioeconômicas da sub-bacia do Arroio Cadena localizada na cidade de Santa Maria, região central do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Esta estrutura tem como filosofia geral analisar problemas ambientais. O estado da arte foi pesquisado com base em 17 indicadores ambientais de temas variados por meio de geoprocessamento aliado a processos de obtenção de feições descritivas da região estudada. A qualificação e quantificação dos indicadores basearam-se na condição que as atividades humanas, produzem Pressões sobre meio ambiente que podem afetar seu estado, o qual, por sua vez, acarreta impactos á sociedade e aos ecossistemas, levando o poder público, as organizações e a população em geral a tomar medidas de respostas sobre o sistema, procurando assim a estabilidade do mesmo. A partir destes indicadores foram gerados escores para cada unidade de bacia hidrográfica, sendo estes indicadores especificados por meio do conhecimento prévio, técnico e especialista para contabilizar os pesos de cada feição de estudo. Na seqüencia foram verificadas as implicações de cada índice sobre a qualidade ambiental formulando-se a carta de qualidade ambiental que apresenta uma compilação das feições de estudo por meio da álgebra de mapas além do tratamento do resultado final por krigeagem ordinária que levou a examinar as incertezas incluídas no método proposto. O trabalho final é composto por um banco de dados espacial que pode ser ampliado e rediscutido em diversas esferas do conhecimento científico. Os resultados podem ajudar os tomadores de decisão a entender as conseqüências de suas decisões sobre o meio ambiente, bem como pode ajudar a organizar os processos de tomada de decisão de forma mais acertada e democrática.