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Executive functions (EFs) are foundational skills that predict academic success and develop rapidly between 3-6 years of age. By kindergarten entry, low socioeconomic status (SES) children have worse EF compared to their high SES peers. However, the nature and origins of these emerging performance gaps have not been systematically assessed. Further, little is known about the neural underpinnings of behavioral EF differences. This project assessed behavioral and neural EF measures in a socioeconomically diverse sample of children aged 4.5 to 5.5 years (N=121). The aims were to examine (1) how SES relates to multiple dimensions of EF, (2) contextual factors that may buffer EF from the impact of SES, and (3) how SES relates to neural EF processing. In study 1, I hypothesized that lower SES children would have worse EF; would especially struggle on harder working memory trials; and would show a steeper decline in performance over time compared to higher SES peers. As hypothesized, lower SES related to overall poorer EF (inhibitory control and working memory tasks). Contrary to expectations, there were no SES differences on holding two items in working memory, but lower SES children had poorer accuracy than higher SES peers when asked to remember just one item. Further, all children’s accuracy declined over time, regardless of SES. Study 2 used a bioecological approach to assess factors that may buffer children from adverse consequences of SES on EF. As hypothesized, results suggest that neighborhood quality has a buffering effect, as there was no relation between SES and child EF in low chaos neighborhoods. In high chaos neighborhoods, lower SES related to poorer EF. Study 3 examined how specific aspects of SES related to electrophysiological EF processing. As hypothesized, on an inhibitory control task, higher household income related to larger P3b amplitudes, indexing inhibition and attention allocation processes. This suggests that children from higher income families may show more mature neural processing. Unexpectedly, parent education did not relate to P3b amplitudes. Taken together, results highlight the importance of using multi- method approaches at different levels of analysis to tease apart the complexity of SES-EF relations in early childhood.

Thesis (MPA (Geography and Environmental Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLSI ABSTRACT: Students are very diverse and mobile population group who are present across the globe. Higher education institutions do not provide sufficient accommodation for students and therefore they need to depend on the private sector for alternative accommodation. The influx of students into neighbourhoods has been coined as studentification and this has various positive and negative impacts on neighbourhood structure. Stellenbosch is classified as a university town with a student population of 15 000 and the University of Stellenbosch only provides accommodation for half of its students. The students that can not be accommodated by the university have to turn to the private sector for accommodation. Die Weides and Simonswyk are neighbourhoods adjacent to campus and have fallen pray to studentification because of a high influx of students which led to an increase in population and physical density. The studentification in Die Weides and Simonswyk has various social, cultural, economical and physical consequences which creates challenges for the spatial planning of these neighbourhoods. A qualitative and quantitative approach has been used for this study. The literature study focusses on the following aspects: studentification and its dimensions; neighbourhood quality; two types of student housing; and the role that public policy has to fulfill in student housing regulation. Furthermore, the student accommodation policy of Stellenbosch Municipality and the densification policy is discussed to get an understanding of the current situation in Die Weides and Simonswyk and what future developments may occur. Property sales in Die Weides and Simonswyk over the past 16 years were analyzed to determine the level of property change that has occurred. Surveys amongst students and permanent residents within Die Weides and Simonswyk have been conducted to determine the degree of studentification that has occurred within the neigbourhoods. The accommodation policy for students which has been approved by the Stellenbosch Council, is a commendable initiative to try and regulate studentification. The policy only focusses on future student accommodation and the regulation thereof, however the policy is unclear on how current existing student accommodation should be dealt with. The valuation of property transactions in the two neighbourhoods shows that it is the utility and demand which is the main factors for property values and changes that occur. It has been found that student housing affects the neighbourhood in a negative manner and that it also decreases the neighbourhood quality. Negative social, physical and cultural consequences are experienced within these neighbourhoods, resulting in issues such as noise, traffic, high density and the loss of neigbourhood characteristics. Within Die Weides and Simonswyk there is a lack of social cohesion between the permanent residents and the students and neither of the two parties are attempting to get to know each other. Studentification offers several challenges for the development and implementation of public policy and spatial planning at regional and international level. Urgent attention needs to be given to more sustainable integration of student accommodation in Stellenbosch. Communication and willingness to co-operate between all relevant parties, will determine whether studentification can be regulated in a successful manner in Stellenbosch. The growth of the student population is inevitable and the presence of student accommodation in the town's neighborhoods will continue to increase. Public policy and the role that it should play in regulating studentification should be reviewed in Stellenbosch. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Studente is ‘n diverse en mobiele bevolkingsgroep wat regoor die wêreld voorkom. Hoër onderwys instansies voorsien selde voldoende akkommodasie aan studentebevolkings en dit forseer studente om alternatiewe akkommodasie te bekom in die privaat sektor. Die invloei van studente in buurte en binnestedelike woongebiede word gekenmerk met die term studentifikasie wat verskeie positiewe en negatiewe gevolge in hou vir die struktuur van woonbuurte. Stellenbosch word beskou as ‘n universiteitsdorp met ‘n studentebevolking van ongeveer 15 000 en die Universiteit van Stellenbosch bied akkommodasie aan die helfte van sy studente. Oorblywende studente moet dus die privaatsektor betree vir alternatiewe akkommodasie om ook in Stellenbosch te kan resideer. Die Weides en Simonswyk is woonbuurte neweliggend aan die kampus en is ’n teiken vir studentifikasie deur ‘n toevloei van studente en die gevolglike bevolkingsdruk wat na verdigting (mense en geboue) lei. Die studentifikasie van Die Weides en Simonswyk het verskeie sosiale, kulturele, fisiese en ekonomiese impakte en dit skep uitdagings vir die ruimtelike beplanning van die woonbuurte. Die studie volg beide kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe navorsingsbenaderings. Die literatuuroorsig fokus op studentifikasie en die dimensies daarvan, woonbuurtkwaliteit, twee tipes studentebehusing en die rol wat openbare beleid kan speel in studentebehuising regulasie. Stellenbosch munisipaliteit se studente akkommodasiebeleid en verdigtingsraamwerk word bespreek om agtergrond te kry oor die huidige situasie in Die Weides en Simonswyk en watter toekomstige ontwikkelings mag voorkom. Eiendomsverkope in Die Weides en Simonswyk oor die afgelope 16 jaar is ontleed om die vlak van eiendomsverandering te bepaal en meningsopnames onder studente en permanente inwoners in Die Weides en Simonswyk is gedoen om te bepaal wat die werklike omvang van studentifikasie is in die buurt. Die akkommodasiebeleid vir studente wat deur die Stellenbosch Stadsraad goed gekeur is, is ‘n prysenswaardige inisiatief om studentifikasie te probeer reguleer. Die beleid fokus egter net op toekomstige studentebehuising, die regulasie daarvan en die beleid is nie duidelik oor hoe reeds gevestigde studentebehuising aangespreek gaan word nie. Die waardebepaling van eiendomstransaksies in die twee buurte toon dat die nut en vraag die hoof rolle speel in die eiendomswaardes en verandering wat voorkom. Daar is bevind dat die teenwoordigheid van studentebehuising in woonbuurte grootliks negatiewe impakte het en dat dit woonbuurtkwaliteit verlaag. Negatiewe sosiale, fisiese en kulturele gevolge word in buurte ondervind, met kwessies soos geraas, verkeersdruk, oorskryde drakapasiteit en verlore woonbuurtkarakter is die manifestasies daarvan. Daar is nie ‘n sterk sosiale band tussen studente en permanente inwoners in Die Weides en Simonswyk nie en beide partye wend nie veel pogings aan om mekaar beter te leer ken nie. Studentifikasie bied verskeie uitdagings vir die ontwikkeling en toepassing van openbare beleid en ruimtelike beplanning op internasionaal en plaaslike vlak. Aandag moet dringend aan die meer volhoubare integrasie van studentebehuising in Stellenbosch gegee word. Kommunikasie en bereidwilligheid vir samewerking tussen alle rolspelers sal bepaal of studentifikasie in Stellenbosch op ‘n suksesvolle manier gereguleer kan word. Die groei van die studentebevolking is onvermydelik en die voorkoms van studentebehuising in die dorp se leefruimtes en woonbuurte sal in Stellenbosch toeneem. Openbare beleid en die rol wat dit moet speel in die regulering van studentifikasie sal onverwyld hersien moet word in Stellenbosch.