Although self-regulation can be a crucial tool for dealing with stress, the perception of stress may undermine successful self-regulation. The present research tested the hypothesis that perceiving one's life as stressful would lead to decrements in self-regulatory performance. Preliminary data demonstrated a strong negative correlation between perceived life stress and trait self-control. Study 1 showed that participants induced to believe their lives were more stressful showed less persistence on a subsequent task. In Study 2, participants who reported on their perceived life stress immediately before working on a set of difficult anagrams solved fewer anagrams than did participants who reported on their life stress immediately after the anagram task. A third study employed a novel manipulation of perceived stress but failed to replicate previous findings. Implications of Studies 1 and 2 and reasons for the failure of Study 3 will be discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2012. / October 29, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references. / Joyce Ehrlinger, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela Perrewe, University Representative; Roy Baumeister, Committee Member; Mary Gerend, Committee Member; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member.

Secular gains in intelligence test scores have perplexed researchers since they were documented by Flynn (1984, 1987), but few have attempted to understand them as a cognitive phenomenon. Gains are most pronounced on seemingly "culture-free" tests, which require analogical reasoning in the near-absence of familiar content, prompting Flynn (2007) to attribute rising scores to improvements in abstract reasoning conferred by a 20th-century emphasis on scientific thinking. Building upon Flynn's theory and Singley and Anderson's (1989) conceptualization of transfer as common productions, I propose that recent-born individuals have developed a relatively general procedural knowledge structure, or "weak method" (Singley & Anderson, 1989, p. 230), for analogical mapping. I test the theory first with archival data, and then with think-aloud verbal reports obtained while participants from two cohorts completed the Raven's Matrices, the test with the largest Flynn effect. Consistent with the theory, it is found that individuals from the earlier cohort are less able to map objects corresponding to higher levels of relational abstraction. Previous research suggests this weak method may be cultivated by learning to solve a wide variety of the kinds of unfamiliar problems that require an initial process of working through an example. The work identifies a plausible cognitive mechanism for the Flynn effect, makes testable predictions, reveals new insights into the cognition of matrix reasoning, and highlights the indispensible role of cognitive theories in advancing and testing cross-cultural generalizations. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / October 25, 2011. / Analogical reasoning, Flynn effect, Intelligence, IQ / Includes bibliographical references. / Neil Charness, Professor Directing Dissertation; Anne Barrett, University Representative; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Carol Connor, Committee Member.

Although research has supported the use of empirically supported treatments (ESTs) for psychological disorders, many clinicians prefer to use a modular approach integrating interventions from a number of different ESTs. The current study examined the effectiveness of modular therapy in a community clinic serving patients with a wide variety of diagnoses and complex problems. Records were reviewed for 291 adult psychotherapy outpatients; 120 patients received modular therapy and 171 received a single EST. First, the two treatment approaches were compared using a propensity score weighting procedure to correct for the lack of random assignment. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between the treatment types on measures of functional improvement. Next, the effectiveness of modular therapy in the current clinic was assessed using a meta-analytic benchmarking strategy. Results indicated that the unstandardized effect size outcomes for therapist rated improvement were similar to benchmarks from prior research studies. Depressed patients in the current sample showed less improvement compared to prior efficacy studies, but had similar improvement to prior effectiveness studies. Treatment implications and future research directions of these findings were discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / July 7, 2011. / Benchmarking, Evidence Based Treatment, Modular Psychotherapy, Propensity Score, Psychotherapy Outcomes / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Joiner, Professor Directing Dissertation; David Kirby, University Representative; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Natalie Sachs-Ericsson, Committee Member; Richard Wagner, Committee Member.

Although social support variables have long been associated with psychological well-being, and in particular, depressive symptoms, few studies have examined the causal association between social support and depressive symptoms. The present study examined two basic hypotheses: do levels of social support predict later depressive symptoms, or conversely, do depressive symptoms predict subsequent declines in social support? Depression is the most frequent cause of emotional suffering in older adults, and thus identifying contributors to depressive symptoms among older adults has important implications for developing treatment for depressive symptoms. Two hypotheses regarding the causal relation between the association between social support and depression were identified. Lewinsohn's social skills model of depression posits that social skills deficits lead to reduced social support, which in turn produces depression. In contrast, Coyne's interpersonal theory of depression (1976), proposed that depressed individuals interact with others in a manner that is aversive and lacking in social skills (Coyne, 1976), which serves to reduce social support. In the current study, the influence of three dimensions of social support on subsequent depressive symptoms was examined. In a modified test of the first hypothesis (low social support predicts depression), the present study examined the influence of the three dimensions of social support (i.e., emotional social support, instrumental support and size of social network), on subsequent depressive symptoms in a sample of older adults. The second hypothesis examined whether depressive symptoms negatively impacted subsequent levels of social support, that is, whether initial levels of baseline (time 1) depressive symptoms had a negative impact on indices of social support. It should be noted these were only partial test of Coyne and Lewinsohns's theories, as social skills was not measure in the current study. A longitudinal study design based on data obtained from the Duke EPESE was employed to examine the association between dimensions of social support and depressive symptoms over a six-year period in a sample of older adults (N=2100). The three dimensions of social support were identified based on a factor analysis of survey items included in the EPESE study. These social support measures tapped aspects of both the quality and quantity of social support. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). A test of the first hypothesis, that social support deficits would predict subsequent depressive symptoms among older adults was not supported. Inconsistent with Lewinsohn's theory, as quality of instrumental support increased, depression increased. Therefore, it appears that individuals with more difficulty are receiving more instrumental support from family and friends. In a test of the second hypothesis, based on Coyne's theory of depression, baseline (time 1) depressive symptoms were examined to see if they predicted any of the social support measures. Depressive symptoms measured at time 1 did not predict any of the social support measures assessed at time 2. However, there was a sex and depression interaction in the prediction of size of social networks. As depression decreased the size of social networks increased, but it increased more for men than women. Maintaining a large network of support may be more important to men than for women. However, in partial support of a Coyne's modified theory results showed that a change in depressive symptoms did predict a change in emotional social support such that as depression decreased emotional support increased. Similarly, a change in depressive symptoms predicted a change in social network support such that as depression decreased social network support increased. Thus, these results are consistent with the modified Coyne's theory that suggests that depressed individuals have aversive styles of functioning and therefore are more likely to lower both the quality and quantity of social support. In light of these findings, special attention should be paid to the status of social networks. Elderly individuals with fewer friends and family and less social may be at risk for developing depressive symptoms and further erosion of support networks. In addition, older adults, particularly those with depression, may benefit from interventions designed to maintain or even enhance social networks. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / August 30, 2011. / Community, Depression, Depressive symptoms, Elderly, Older Adults, Social Support / Includes bibliographical references. / Natalie Sachs-Ericsson, Professor Directing Dissertation; John Taylor, University Representative; Thomas Joiner, Committee Member; Jeanette Taylor, Committee Member; Elizabeth A. Plant, Committee Member.

This study was designed to address the following questions (a) to what extent do teachers' judgments of students' academic competence and problematic behavior agree with direct assessments of reading and self-regulation? (b) to what extent are teachers' judgments affected by students' race and gender? And, if they are affected by students' race and/or gender, are these race and gender differences reflected in the direct assessments and (c) to what extent do teachers' judgment of their students' academic competence and problematic behavior predict spring reading and self-regulation outcomes, controlling for fall scores. The study examined second graders' (n=570 students, 40 classrooms, 8 schools) self-regulation skills using the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders Task (HTKS). The Woodcock Johnson Achievement - Passage Comprehension subtest was utilized as a measure of reading ability. Of the sample, 39% of the children were African American (Black), 48% were White. 47% were boys. Teachers' ratings of students' academic competence generally agreed with direct assessment of reading however agreement was greater for academic competence than for problematic behavior. This is likely because teachers had access to the students' reading assessments. At the same time, teachers' judgments appeared to be influenced by students' gender and race; they generally rated African American boys to be less academically competent than White boys, and less competent than girls regardless of race. Teachers' judgments predicted spring outcomes even when controlling for fall scores. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Spring Semester, 2012. / December 9, 2011. / academic, behavior, gender, race, self-regulation, teacher perception / Includes bibliographical references. / Carol Connor, Professor Directing Thesis; Chris Schatschneider, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.

The perpetration of violent crimes by our youth is a major societal concern and understanding the factors that predispose them to aggressive behavior is of the utmost importance. Therefore, research aimed at identifying risk factors of aggression among high-risk youth are needed for the purpose of informing future intervention strategies. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate cognitive risk factors that have been theorized and shown to play a contributory role in the development of aggression for less severe populations in a sample of male juvenile offenders (N = 119). More specifically, this study investigated the prediction of aggression and related antisocial behavior from youths' self-views (i.e., self-esteem, inflated self-perceptions) and an emotion regulation strategy (i.e., anger rumination) while taking into account personality factors (i.e., narcissism, trait anger) that have also been linked to aggression and share conceptual overlap with these constructs of interest. An evaluation of the psychometric properties of the study measures tapping these constructs provided evidence that these variables could be reliably and validly assessed among a sample of juvenile offenders. Most importantly, anger rumination, anger, self-esteem, and maladaptive narcissism were revealed as significant predictors of juvenile offenders' initial levels of aggression and developmental trajectories of aggression across a four month period. The implications of these findings are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 18, 2012. / aggresssion, juvenile offenders, risk factors / Includes bibliographical references. / Janet A. Kistner, Professor Directing Dissertation; Kevin Beaver, University Representative; Jeanette Taylor, Committee Member; Joyce Carbonell, Committee Member; Chris Schatschneider, Committee Member.

The present study examined four kinds of vocabulary knowledge: Definitional knowledge, using vocabulary in context, relational knowledge, and morphological knowledge. A measure was developed that assessed all four kinds of vocabulary knowledge using the same 23 vocabulary words, which allowed within- and between-word variance to be modeled. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test three alternative models of vocabulary knowledge: (1) a four-factor model that specified four related yet distinct dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, (2) a two-factor model that considered vocabulary knowledge and morphological knowledge to be two separate but potentially related factors, and (3) a one-factor model in which vocabulary knowledge was unidimensional. These alternative models were examined by modeling both within- and between-word variance. When controlling for extraneous word-level variance, vocabulary knowledge was found to be a relatively unidimensional construct. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 11, 2012. / Morphological Awareness, Morphological Knowledge, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Knowledge, Word Knowledge / Includes bibliographical references. / Richard K. Wagner, Professor Directing Thesis; Carol Connor, Committee Member; Michael Kaschak, Committee Member.

Study 1 examined whether the belief that "emaciation is beautiful" may contribute to anorexia nervosa (AN) symptom severity. Findings suggest that compared to non-eating disordered women, AN women are more likely to associate emaciation with both beauty and ugliness. Further, eating disorder symptoms, such as restraint, shape concern, and weight concern, significantly predicted the strength of the association between emaciation and beauty and emaciation and ugliness. Study 2 investigated whether the belief that "death is beautiful" is a cognitive risk factor for suicidality. I found that among participants who were fearless about death (i.e., had high levels of acquired capability), thinking about death was associated more with positivity than thinking about a control condition. As currently conceptualized, the acquired capability for suicide is a construct that is behaviorally based and can only increase or remain stable over time. However, the results of this study suggest there might be cognitive styles related to the acquired capability for suicide, which could have important treatment implications. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / August 29, 2011. / acquired capability, anorexia nervosa, cognitive risk factors, disordered eating, suicidal behavior, suicide / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Professor Directing Dissertation; Mark Winegardner, University Representative; Jon Maner, Committee Member; Pamela Keel, Committee Member; Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) refers to a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in the domains of communication, social interaction, and the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). ASD is diagnosed more frequently in males than females, with children receiving diagnoses of ASD at increasingly earlier ages. In spite of the tremendous amount of research documenting various aspects of ASD, only a modest body of research examining sex differences exists. The present study examined sex differences in adaptive behavior and autism symptomatology in children with ASD and also examined sex differences in developmental functioning and early social communication profiles in children with ASD and typical development (TD). There were 288 participants (54 female) in the ASD group and 222 (59 female) in the TD group. Participants were recruited from the Florida State University (FSU) FIRST WORDS® Project and University of Michigan Autism and Communication Disorders Center (UMACC). Analyses did not reveal significant effects of sex or a significant diagnostic group by sex interaction. The results from this study contributes to the conflicting research findings which have inconsistently documented sex differences in individuals with ASD with respect to cognitive functioning and autism symptomatology. Future research that systematically examines the ASD phenotype in males and females across age and developmental level is necessary. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2012. / May 31, 2012. / Adaptive behavior, Autism, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Cognitive functioning, Early communication, Sex differences / Includes bibliographical references. / Amy M. Wetherby, Professor Directing Thesis; Janet Kistner, Committee Member; Carol Connor, Committee Member.

Anxiety-related psychopathology represents one of the most prevalent and debilitating forms of mental illness. A large number of effective cognitive-behavioral treatments for anxiety disorders have been developed and validated. Consequently, research has resulted in an ever-growing number of treatments, each comprised of specific strategies targeting particular anxiety disorders. Therapy protocols are numerous and somewhat complex, which is likely to limit training and dissemination of these treatments. As a result, researchers have begun to explore transdiagnostic approaches to anxiety treatment based on models of anxiety emphasizing common elements across anxiety disorders. The aim of the current study was to test the efficacy of a brief transdiagnostic treatment for anxiety disorders. The current treatment focused chiefly on the elimination of behaviors that maintain anxiety (so-called safety behaviors) among individuals suffering from a range of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD) and panic disorder (PD). Patients with a primary anxiety disorder (N = 28) were randomly assigned to F-SET or waitlist control. Data indicate that F-SET shows good efficacy and durability when delivered to individuals with a range of anxiety disorders (GAD, PD, SAD). The results from the current study are an important first step in indentifying a simpler, focused form of individual treatment that can be delivered with minimal therapist training, at a low cost and with minimal client contact time. / A Dissertation submitted to the Psychology Department in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / November 17, 2011. / Anxiety, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Transdiagnostic Treatment / Includes bibliographical references. / Norman B. Schmidt, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce Thyer, University Representative; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Thomas Joiner, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.