Reading, writing, language, and spelling all fall under the umbrella of literacy skills. A number of studies have looked at these constructs and their relationship to each other but the results have been highly variable. The aim of this study is to help to clarify the relationship between reading, writing, language, and spelling in 5th grade students (N = 395). Specifically this study focused on clarifying the role spelling plays as a component of literacy. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to identify the factor structure of the four constructs of interest. Model fit statistics revealed that reading, writing, language and spelling function as separate constructs in both the fall and spring data. A test for measurement invariance revealed that spelling and language measures were invariant across the school year. The writing and reading construct loadings were not consistent from fall to spring. These results have implications for the future assessment of spelling and writing. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 20, 2013. / reading, spelling, writing / Includes bibliographical references. / Carol Connor, Professor Co-Directing Thesis; Chris Schatschneider, Professor Co-Directing Thesis; Rick Wagner, Committee Member; Mike Kaschak, Committee Member.

Elevated levels of anxiety sensitivity (AS), the fear of anxiety and its consequences, places individuals at an increased risk for the development of anxiety disorders, especially panic disorder. It has shown that treating AS may reduce the future development of anxiety psychopathology. However, individuals high in AS may be unaware of the risks associated with this risk factor and, therefore, may tend to be ambivalent or unaware of interventions to reduce AS. The purpose of the current study was to enhance motivation to utilize a preventive intervention in a non-intervention seeking population with elevated levels of AS. Participants (N = 65) were randomized to one of two groups: (1) a motivational enhancement group (MET; N = 32) group, or (2) a psychoeducation control group (N = 33). Those in the MET group received MET focused on enhancing motivation to reduce AS, whereas those in the control group were informed of their elevated level of AS, received psychoeducation about health and general well-being, but did not receive MET. At the end of the study, all of the participants were given the option to receive a computerized intervention previously found to be effective at reducing AS (see Schmidt et al., 2007). Results revealed that all participants showed an increase in the importance and confidence to change anxiety after receiving high-risk feedback before starting the experimental session. Once they were in the experimental groups (i.e., MET or health focused control), results revealed that the MET group showed significantly higher levels of motivation on the self-report questionnaires than the control group. However, there was not a group difference in the completion of the AS intervention. Further, the MET condition was associated with a significant reduction in level of AS after completing the experiment session. Implications of the findings are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / January 9, 2013. / anxiety disorders, anxiety sensitivity, motivational interviewing, motivation enhancement therapy, prevention, risk factors / Includes bibliographical references. / Norman B. Schmidt, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.

The detection of salty taste stimuli depends on two salt-sensing transduction pathways that involve membrane channels on the surface of fungiform taste bud cells located on the anterior tongue in rats. These two pathways are the transcellular, amiloride-sensitive pathway and paracellular, amiloride-insensitive pathway. The transcellular is specific to NaCl and LiCl. Past studies have shown that LiCl and NaCl generate specific responses from taste nerves and that they are indistinguishable in behavioral tests. To this end, we generated the first dose-response curve comparing various concentrations of NaCl and LiCl and performed brief-access behavioral tests in order to determine if there is differential firing of the chorda tympani nerve to NaCl and LiCl stimulation and whether rats can discriminate between the two salts. We found that CT responses are higher for LiCl and NaCl for most concentrations used. This same trend was found when the salts were adulterated with amiloride. Measurements of the phasic portion of the CT response showed a larger amiloride-sensitive portion to the CT nerve response to NaCl than to LiCl. This difference may be sufficient to mediate LiCl/NaCl discrimination. We also found that rats were able to distinguish 30 mM LiCl from 30 mM NaCl, 30 mM LiCl from water, and 75 mM LiCl from water. These results hint to the possibility that with particular concentrations and particular tests, rats should be able to discriminate between NaCl and LiCl. Our results are similar to past research showing that LiCl responses are greater than NaCl responses. Our findings also suggest that there is differential signaling between NaCl and LiCl at the level of the whole nerve. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 26, 2013. / Chorda tympani, Electrophysiology, LiCl, NaCl, Salt transduction, Taste / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert J. Contreras, Professor Directing Thesis; Thomas A. Houpt, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.

In this Dissertation, the effects of various social stimuli on adult neurogenesis--the formation and functional integration of adult-generated neurons into the existing neuronal circuitry--were investigated in the socially monogamous prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). As reviewed in Chapter 1, several intrinsic (e.g., hormones and neurotransmitters) and extrinsic (e.g., environmental enrichment and physical exercise) factors have been shown to alter adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the main olfactory bulb/subventricular zone (MOB/SVZ) system as well as other non-traditional neurogenic brain regions (including the amygdala, medial preoptic area, and ventromedial hypothalamus). Researchers have begun to examine the effects of various social environmental factors on distinct stages of adult neurogenesis (including cell proliferation, cell survival, and neuronal differentiation) in the dentate gyrus and MOB/SVZ system. However, the effects of social stimuli on adult neurogenesis particularly in non-traditional neurogenic brain regions remain understudied. This is likely due to the lack of an appropriate animal model; as the animal species commonly used to study adult neurogenesis (e.g., rats and mice) do not display stable, long-term social interactions. Therefore, in this Chapter, we introduced the socially monogamous prairie vole as a suitable animal model to study the effects of various social stimuli on adult neurogenesis in non-traditional neurogenic brain regions. In Chapter 2, we showed that long-term social isolation, a stressful stimulus, significantly reduced cell proliferation, cell survival, neuronal differentiation, and cell death in the amygdala and dentate gyrus of the female prairie vole. In addition, long-term social isolation increased anxiety-like, depression-like, and affiliative behaviors--possibly suggesting that alterations in adult neurogenesis may underlie the observed behavioral changes. In Chapter 3, we examined the effects of long-term social isolation and fatherhood on cell proliferation and cell survival in male prairie voles. We demonstrated that fatherhood, but not social isolation, down-regulated cell survival, without altering cell proliferation, in a brain region specific manner. In Chapter 4, we investigated the effects of acute and chronic pup exposure on cell proliferation and cell survival in male prairie voles. The data showed that neither acute nor chronic pup exposure altered neuronal plasticity in the amygdala, dentate gyrus, and ventromedial hypothalamus. In Chapter 5, we showed that fatherhood in prairie voles increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and reduced the high level of mating-induced aggression. Finally, in Chapter 6, we discussed the observed effects of various social stimuli on neuronal plasticity and their implications as well as suggested directions for future research. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / March 28, 2013. / adult neurogenesis, amygdala, social behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Zuoxin Wang, Professor Directing Dissertation; Yanchang Wang, University Representative; Frank Johnson, Committee Member; Cathy Levenson, Committee Member; Barbara Licht, Committee Member.

Compulsive hoarding has been defined as the accumulation of and failure to discard a large number of possessions that appear to have little or no value, to the extent that ones living spaces are precluded from everyday use. Current cognitive behavioral models of compulsive hoarding view hoarding as a multifaceted problem stemming from information processing deficits in the areas of memory, attention, decision making, and categorization. The vast majority of research to date has focused on establishing such deficits as vulnerability factors in the development of compulsive hoarding. However, there is also reason to suspect that the experience of compulsive hoarding may in turn be responsible for deficits in information processing. Thus, the current study seeks to expand upon the existing literature by examining the relationships between clutter and information processing deficits through an experimental test of a Scar model. Participants included 72 individuals from the community and undergraduate population. Participants were randomized into either a clutter or non-clutter condition and asked to complete various neuropsychological and behavioral tasks of memory, attention, decision making, and categorization. Results revealed that individuals with elevated levels of hoarding exhibited greater deficits in the areas of attention, decision making, and categorization. Inconsistent with prediction however, it appears that individuals in the clutter condition relative to the non-clutter condition did not experience greater deficits in information processing. The current findings provide useful information regarding potential vulnerability factors for compulsive hoarding and add considerably to a growing body of literature on hoarding behaviors. Moreover, the current study is the first to examine how the presence or absence of clutter might influence or contribute to deficits in information processing. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / January 7, 2013. / Hoarding, Information Processing / Includes bibliographical references. / Norman B. Schmidt, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse R. Cougle, Committee Member; E. Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

This research examined stigma toward women with cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is caused by human papillomavirus, a sexually transmitted infection. For Study 1, participants (N = 352) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read a brief description of a patient with (1) cervical cancer/cause unspecified; (2) cervical cancer/cause (HPV) specified; (3) ovarian cancer/cause unspecified; or (4) ovarian cancer/cause (family history) specified. A significant cancer type-by-cause interaction was observed, such that participants in the cervical cancer/cause specified condition displayed the most stigma toward the patient. Participants in the cervical cancer/cause specified condition were more likely to rate the patient as dirty, dishonest, and unwise and reported feeling more moral disgust and "grossed out," and less sympathy than participants in the cervical cancer/cause unspecified condition. For study 2, participants (N = 126) were randomly assigned to read a vignette about a patient with cervical cancer in which the cause of cancer was either specified or unspecified. Consistent with Study 1, participants in the cause specified condition rated the patient as more unwise and reported feeling more moral disgust and "grossed out" than participants in the unspecified condition. In addition, the relationship between experimental condition and expressions of stigma was mediated by blame attributions. These findings add to the literature on health-related stigma and provide preliminary evidence for the use of more subtle indicators of stigma and the importance of the role of blame in this process. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / November 30, 2012. / blame, cervical cancer, emotion, health, HPV, stigma / Includes bibliographical references. / Mary A. Gerend, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse R. Cougle, Committee Member; E. Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

The goal of the present study is to examine the construct validity of the Spanish translation of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ) - a self-report questionnaire assessing suicide relevant constructs. Translation occurred through a process of forward and back translation. Psychometric characteristics of the INQ in Spanish and English were initially examined in a sample of 33 bilingual undergraduate students using a counterbalanced within-participants design. Results indicated strong internal consistency for both measures and moderate to large item correspondence across both languages. Although no significant language effect was found, order effects were significant such that individuals who took the Spanish language measure first scored higher across both measures than those who completed the English version first. Implications of potential order effects are discussed. The psychometric properties of the translated measure were further tested via single-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using three independent Spanish-speaking samples (U.S. undergraduates, university students in Spain, and psychiatric inpatients in Mexico). Results support the viability of a latent variable measurement model of the INQ-Spanish with six indicators of perceived burdensomeness and nine indicators of thwarted belongingness (similar to the INQ-English) across U.S. and foreign university students and foreign psychiatric inpatients. The data are also consistent with the assumption of the interpersonal theory of suicide that perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness are related, but distinct constructs. These data provide initial evidence of comparable validity between the Spanish and English INQ in diverse samples, suggesting that the INQ-Spanish measures two constructs especially relevant for suicide prevention that could be a useful addition to cross-cultural suicide risk assessment protocols. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 24, 2013. / Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire, Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, Perceived Burdensomeness, Psychometrics, Spanish translation, Thwarted Belongingness / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse R. Cougle, Committee Member; Richard K. Wagner, Committee Member.

In this dissertation, the neurobiological mechanisms that govern the effects of social buffering on stress were evaluated in female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). As reviewed in Chapter 1, social living is beneficial for many species, resulting in increased individual survival and fitness. One factor that seems to lead to such benefits is the anxiolytic effects of social contact with a bonded partner, referred to as social buffering. While stressful life events can enhance the risk of mental disorders, positive social interactions, particularly with a significant other, can propagate good mental health and normal behavioral routines. Still, the functional neural systems that promote these benefits via regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis recovery are undetermined. Prairie voles engage in and depend on a social environment, including male-female pair-bonds, biparental care, and living in extended families. Like other monogamous mammals, male-female interactions can reduce basal HPA axis activity while promoting stress-reducing neuropeptidergic pathways in prairie voles. In Chapter 2, I evaluated the variability of the behavioral and physiological response as a function of the nature of the stressor in female prairie voles. This is important, as little research has been conducted to study the stress response in voles and determining the responsivity of prairie voles to various stressors will lead to better models of stress in this socially and physiologically unique species. I found stress-specific effects on physiological and behavioral response that varied as a function of the source, intensity, and predictability of the stressor. Furthermore, these data highlight the utility of immobilization within an acute paradigm to characterize the stress response in female prairie voles. Chapter 3 revealed that social buffering from a bonded partner can reverse the aversive effects of immobilization stress on behavior, physiology, and neurochemistry through local activation of the oxytocin (OT) system in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Recovering from immobilization stress with their bonded partner lead to a reduction in the stress response in female prairie voles. This social buffering by the male partner was accompanied by increased OT release in the PVN. In addition, an intra-PVN OT injection reduced behavioral and physiological responses to immobilization stress whereas an injection of an oxytocin receptor antagonist blocked the effects of the social buffering. This provides evidence for a neural mechanism underlying the social buffering effect from a pair bonded partner in female prairie voles. Finally, in Chapter 4, I discuss these findings and their implications in a general context and suggest future directions for related research. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 27, 2013. / HPA axis, Immobilization stress, Microtus ochrogaster, Oxytocin, Prairie vole, Social buffering / Includes bibliographical references. / Zuoxin Wang, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Keller, University Representative; Carlos Bolaños, Committee Member; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Richard Bertram, Committee Member.

This study assessed the extent to which multiple administrations of an intensity scale; in this case, the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ), influences participant responding on subsequent administrations of the same scale. The first experiment sought to determine this by using a laboratory task in which one group of participants were asked to watch a number of identical videos depicting a simulated drive from the driver's point of view, and fill out an SSQ and Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) between viewings of the videos. Another group of participants were asked to view the videos, but were only asked to fill out the SSQ and CES-D once before the first video and once after the last video. Overall, it was found that multiple administrations of the SSQ and CES-D do not substantially influence subsequent responding on both scales. The second experiment sought to replicate the findings from the first experiment online by using Amazon's Mechanical Turk service. Here, the same pattern of responding to the SSQ was found. Together, these findings suggest that additional administrations of an intensity scale; in this case, the SSQ, do not substantially influence participant responding on subsequent administrations. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 8, 2013. / Demand Characteristics, Intensity Scale, Questionnaire, Reactivity, Repeated Administrations, Retest Effect / Includes bibliographical references. / Neil Charness, Professor Directing Thesis; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Frank Johnson, Committee Member.

Research on inattentional blindness (IB) has uncovered few individual difference measures that predict failures to detect an unexpected event. Notably, no clear relationship exists between primary task performance and IB. This is perplexing as better task performance is typically associated with increased effort and should result in fewer spare resources to process the unexpected event. We utilized a psychophysiological measure of effort (pupillary response) to explore whether differences in effort devoted to the primary task (multiple object tracking) are related to IB. Pupillary response was sensitive to tracking load and differences in primary task error rates. Furthermore, pupillary response was a better predictor of conscientiousness than primary task errors; errors were uncorrelated with conscientiousness. Despite being sensitive to task load, individual differences in performance and conscientiousness, pupillary response did not distinguish between those who noticed the unexpected event and those who did not. Results provide converging evidence that effort and primary task engagement may be unrelated to IB. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 18, 2013. / inattentional blindness, pupillary response, selective attention / Includes bibliographical references. / Walter Boot, Professor Directing Thesis; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Edward Bernat, Committee Member.