Introduction - The Simple View of Reading (SVR) and the Not-so-Simple View of Writing (NSVW) are well established models of reading and writing, respectively. This study combined and expanded upon these theoretical frameworks of component skills of reading and writing using data from a multivariate meta-analysis of the overlapping indicators and predictors of literacy skills. Method - Data for this study came from a previously conducted meta-analysis of the correlations among component skills of reading and writing (Ahmed, 2013). A synthesized correlation matrix of 77 studies was fit to a joint model of reading and writing. The variables included rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness (PA), decoding/orthography (D/O), reading comprehension (RC), vocabulary/morphology (V/M), listening comprehension (LC), oral expression (OE), working memory (WM), non-verbal reasoning (NVR), spelling (SP), handwriting (HW), writing quality (WQ), and Curriculum-based (or count-based) measures of writing (CBM). The first class of models replicated and extended the Simple View of Reading. The second class of models was based on components of the Not-so-Simple View of Writing, but did not replicate this model, as the meta-analysis did not identify a well-defined construct for executive functioning. Finally, the last class of models examined the contributions of component skills to both reading comprehension and text generation, and tested whether relations among component skills and writing are mediated through reading. Results - The results supported the validity of the Simple View of Reading as originally proposed by Gough & Tunmer, 1986, that reading comprehension equals the sum of two components (word reading and language comprehension). Results for the models of writing indicated that transcription emerged as an important predictor of writing, and working memory did not explain variance in writing. The models of literacy supported the role of text reading in writing, over and above the role of language and decoding. The results have implications for studying the development of reading and writing in the context of literacy rather than in the context of language. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / July 8, 2014. / Literacy, Meta-analysis, Not-so-Simple View of Writing, Reading, Simple View of Reading, Writing / Includes bibliographical references. / Richard K. Wagner, Professor Directing Dissertation; Young Suk-Kim, University Representative; Chris Schatschneider, Committee Member; Sara Hart, Committee Member; Elizabeth Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

Intimates regularly attempt to motivate their partners to change their undesirable behaviors by engaging in confrontational partner-regulation behaviors. Although recent research suggests that such behaviors can indeed motivate partners to change on average, theoretical perspectives suggest that such behaviors may decrease the motivation of partners who are experiencing depression. A survey study of romantic relationships, an observational study of newlyweds, and a diary study of married couples provided support for this prediction. Across all three studies, confrontational partner-regulation behaviors were associated with more motivation to resolve problems among partners who were experiencing relatively few depressive symptoms, but less motivation among partners who were experiencing relatively more depressive symptoms. Further, Study 3 provided evidence for the mechanism of these effects-- relationship self-efficacy, or the belief that one can resolve relationship problems. Finally, the three studies additionally provided evidence that engaging in supportive and encouraging behaviors during problem-solving discussions was particularly motivating to partners who were experiencing more depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the fact that theories of communication will be most complete to the extent that they consider that interpersonal behaviors are not inherently beneficial or harmful; rather, their implications depend on qualities of the communication target. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / July 3, 2014. / Depression, Motivation, Partner-regulation, Romantic relationships, Self-efficacy / Includes bibliographical references. / James K. McNulty, Professor Directing Dissertation; Frank D. Fincham, University Representative; Jon K. Maner, Committee Member; E. Ashby Plant, Committee Member; Thomas E. Joiner, Committee Member.

People judge others' harmful effects to be more intentional than their helpful effects (Knobe, 2003). The present work shows that two separate biases produce this side-effect effect: relative to morally neutral side effects, people judge immoral side effects to be more intended and morally good side effects to be unintended (Study 1). Past work on the intentionality of side effects has assumed the former bias, and not the latter bias, produces the side-effect effect. Existing theories explaining the side-effect effect would predict that only foreseen side effects could affect intention judgments. In Study 2, however, both expectations and the actual effects on the environment influenced judgments of intention. Harmful effects on the environment were judged as more intended than helpful effects, even when the CEO only foresaw helpful consequences of running the program. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2014. / December 5, 2013. / Blame, Intentions, Judgment, Morality, Praise, Side-Effect Effect / Includes bibliographical references. / Roy F. Baumeister, Professor Directing Thesis; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.

Recent experiments in embodied social cognition have documented a number of links between physical and psychological states. Warm temperature sensations, in particular, have been the subject of much investigation. Many studies have revealed links between warm temperatures and social affiliative processes, such that experiencing warm temperatures often activates affiliative cognitions and motivations. However, some studies also suggest that experiencing warm temperatures (or heat) can result in aggressive, antisocial responses. My own previous research includes evidence that warm temperature primes can elicit both affiliative and hostile social responses under different circumstances, although it is worth noting that those effects were demonstrated in different studies. The literature currently lacks a coherent account of why similar sensory experiences can motivate such divergent social cognitions and behaviors. The current work was designed to test whether divergent responses to warm temperatures can be explained by variations in the perceivers' social motives, and to test whether this divergence is mediated by variations in the extent to which warmth motivates attention to hostile versus affiliative social cues. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 7, 2014. / Embodied Cognition, Self-Protection, Social Affiliation, Social Cognition, Warmth / Includes bibliographical references. / Jon K. Maner, Professor Directing Dissertation; John Corrigan, University Representative; Mary Gerend, Committee Member; Michael Kaschak, Committee Member; E. Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

Two studies explored the role of internal motivation (i.e., motivation rooted in a personal concern for the environment) and external motivation (i.e., motivation rooted in concerns about one's reputation) for proenvironmental behaviors. Study 1 developed two scales to assess these different motivations and demonstrated the important role of internal motivation for proenvironmental responding. Study 1 also provided preliminary results suggesting that external motivation is associated with irritation toward social pressures to be proenvironmental. Study 2 examined the possibility that these feelings of irritation would lead to backlash whereby people high in external motivation engage in less proenvironmental behavior after being socially pressured to be proenvironmental. Backlash was found among people high in external motivation, particularly if they were also low in internal motivation, in response to an intervention that encouraged valuing the environment and promoted autonomous proenvironmental behavior. These findings have important implications for interventions designed to increase proenvironmental behavior. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / February 26, 2014. / Motivation, Proenvironmental, Reactance, Self-determination theory, Sustainability / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Ashby Plant, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeff Chanton, University Representative; Jon Maner, Committee Member; Barbara Licht, Committee Member; Mary Gerend, Committee Member.

The anterior third of the hypothalamus contains numerous nuclei involved in the regulation of reproductive, stress, circadian, and homeostatic behaviors. Due to the multifarious roles of this small area, neurotransmission is diverse and variegated between the discrete functional nuclei present there. The gaseous neurotransmitter, nitric oxide (NO) has already been shown to have an important regulatory role within the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of the anterior hypothalamus, where it serves to facilitate the expression of sex behaviors. However, little is known about the role of other gaseous neurotransmitters in this behavioral system. Here, I report that carbon monoxide (CO), an endogenously produced gas that also acts as a neurotransmitter, also has a functional behavioral role within this brain area in rats. The central administration of CO-facilitating molecules to the MPOA improves copulatory performance and reduces measures of anxiety, whereas CO-inhibiting molecules serve to impair copulatory performance and increase measures of anxiety. These effects are exerted through two cellular pathways: the cyclic GMP (cGMP) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) signaling systems. These pathways are somewhat distinct, with PGE2 inhibitors effectively blocking CO-induced anxiolysis but only impairing copulatory behavior during the first sexual experience, and cGMP inhibitors effectively impairing copulatory behavior during all experiences but facilitating rather than reducing anxiolysis. These dual mechanisms of CO signaling may stem in part from the disparate expression of the CO-producing enzymes HO-1, which is expressed transiently after the first sexual experience, and HO-2, which increases expression only with repeated experience, as quantified by immunofluorescence. Together, these results indicate that CO has a dual behavioral role within the anterior hypothalamus, exerting control over both reproductive and anxiety behaviors, and that its similarities and contrasts to NO may stem from the variable regulation of the two CO-producing enzymes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2014. / November 14, 2014. / Behavioral Neuroscience, Carbon Monoxide, Gasotransmission, Medial Preoptic Area, Neurotransmission, Sex Behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Elaine Hull, Professor Directing Dissertation; Kimberly Hughes, University Representative; Frank Johnson, Committee Member; Christopher Schatschneider, Committee Member; Michael Meredith, Committee Member.

There are an estimated 44.4 million people living with some form of dementia. Relatively recently, medical professionals have begun to start using odor identification tests to early diagnose dementia-related disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Given that cognition and olfactory functioning are so intimately linked, albeit no knowledge of the governing underlying mechanisms, I designed a series of experiments combining olfactometry, learning paradigms, and metabolism. I hypothesize that if disorders of cognitive decline coincide with decreased olfactory acuity, then modulation of olfactory output can regulate cognitive ability. We found that in two functionally different models of cognitive decay (prenatal cocaine exposure and diet-induced obesity), detriments in two-odor discrimination, as assessed by a KNOSYS 8-channel liquid olfactometer, were also present. Following this, I then investigated whether enhanced olfactory ability also enhanced cognition. Gene target deletion of the voltage-gated potassium channel, Kv1.3. produces a "super-smeller" phenotype, accompanied by an increased metabolism. These Kv1.3-null mice do not demonstrate deficits in olfactory ability or cognition following being challenged by a high-fat diet. Given these results, I wanted to mimic the Kv1.3-null phenotype in wild-type animals by administering insulin, a pharmacological dampener of Kv1.3 activity, to mice intranasally. Two-odor discrimination and cognitive ability was assessed via olfactometry and odor-reversal contingencies respectively. Possible changes in metabolism were also monitored via custom-designed, computer-interfaced, metabolic chambers. I was not able to observe any changes in metabolism, nor were there any enhancement of olfactory and cognitive function. Over all, the findings here demonstrate that olfactory and cognitive decline may accompany one another in some instances. In addition, although Kv1.3-null mice that display enhanced olfactory ability, are resistant to fatty diet-induced cognitive dysfunction, attempts to mimic this behavioral phenotype in wild-type mice were unsuccessful and I was not able to fully demonstrate whether enhanced olfactory ability could in turn enhance cognition. Ultimately the data obtained from these experiments will add further evidence to this link between sensory systems and cognitive capability; possibly providing a better understanding and therefore improved diagnosis of cognitive disorders that inflict millions world-wide. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Biological Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2014. / November 10, 2014. / Cognitive Flexibility, Olfaction, Olfactometry, Reversal Learning / Includes bibliographical references. / Debra Ann Fadool, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Meredith, Committee Member; Walter Tschinkel, Committee Member.

Converging evidence suggests that acute states of overarousal (namely, agitation, insomnia, and nightmares) are commonly observed prior to near-lethal or lethal suicidal behavior. Yet, there has been very little research evaluating theory-driven explanations of these phenomena. The intention of the proposed project was to address this gap in the literature by drawing from and extending the tenets of the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005; Van Orden et al., 2010), which suggests that most individuals will be discouraged from engaging in suicidal behavior because of its fearsome nature. For most individuals, the prospect of engaging in potentially lethal suicidal behavior will elicit some degree of arousal. We expected that the effect of arousal would be particularly relevant, however, when considered in the context of the acquired capability for suicide. A total of 191 participants were randomized to an arousal induction (500-mg caffeine) or placebo control condition. All participants then engaged in a behavioral approach task designed as a proxy for suicidal behavior, which involves assessing approach motivation toward a potential lethal stimulus. Main analyses examined the independent and joint effects of acquired capability and arousal on approach motivation. Secondary analyses considered whether the effects would be better understood in the context of factors thought to contribute to suicidal desire. The influence of depressive symptoms on the relationship between arousal and suicidal behavior as well as the effects of arousal on pain tolerance were also examined within exploratory analyses. Results were partially in line with expectations. Findings are considered within the context of the broader literature, providing insight on directions for future research further elaborating our understanding of the nature of the relationship between overarousal and suicidal behavior. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 25, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; John Corrigan, University Representative; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member; Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

One year of first-grade Good Behavior Game Plus (GBGP) intervention has been linked to long-term academic outcomes including higher test scores and greater likelihood of high school graduation (Bradshaw, Zmuda, Kellam, & Ialongo, 2009). This study investigated potential mechanisms through which these benefits were produced, specifically examining proximal and distal mediators, including academic skills, social relations, and self-perceived academic competence. To better understand how the GBGP intervention affects boys versus girls, this study examined sex as a moderator of GBGP outcomes. This study further investigated if the proposed mediators account for sex differences in GBGP outcomes (i.e. mediated moderation) and if the mediators of GBGP outcomes differ depending on students' sex (i.e. moderated mediation). Results revealed that seventh-grade academic skills were significant mediators of twelfth-grade academic outcomes; however, no proximal mediators of seventh-grade academic benefits were uncovered. Sex differences were detected in first- and seventh-grade reading performance, and first-grade reading significantly mediated the sex differences in seventh-grade (i.e. mediated moderation). Furthermore, seventh-grade reading scores mediated twelfth-grade reading for boys but not for girls, indicating moderated mediation. Overall, these results support previous research showing that prior academic skills are most predictive of later academic performance (e.g. Duncan et al., 2007). It is important to note that without uncovering proximal mediators of GBGP effects, there remains a missing link in the chain of mediation. Additional research is needed to determine the initial mechanisms through which the GBGP intervention leads to its academic benefits. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / October 31, 2013. / Academic Outcomes, Behavior Management, Classroom, Intervention / Includes bibliographical references. / Janet A. Kistner, Professor Directing Dissertation; Frances Prevatt, University Representative; Christopher Lonigan, Committee Member; Christopher Schatschneider, Committee Member; Barbara Licht, Committee Member.

Prolactin is a fertility hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. Normal changes in prolactin levels influence fertility and these changes are carefully regulated by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus. Specifically, prolactin surges along with luteinizing hormone to stimulate ovulation and mating behaviors in rodents. Prolactin also follows a twice-daily surge pattern during rodent pregnancy, helping to maintain the pregnancy and prepare the maternal brain for offspring care. Dopamine is the primary regulatory of prolactin and acts through tonic inhibition during non-surge times. High levels of prolactin feedback to stimulate dopamine and thereby reduce prolactin back down to normal, low levels. However, dopamine is not alone in regulating prolactin release. Early mathematical models from the lab helped to identify some shortcomings in the understanding of prolactin regulation. Based on the existing literature, a model was designed to replicate experimental results. When I came to lab and began reviewing this literature and the model's assumptions, I began to ask some important questions: Do dopamine levels change dramatically with the prolactin surges? Does the timing signal in the model really act as an inhibitory signal? Does the stimulatory signal act alone to drive surges of prolactin release? What else is out that that feeds into this circuit? These perfectly timed surges of prolactin must somehow be controlled by the brain's central clock. One clock signal, VIP, has been implicated in indirect prolactin regulation. This neurotransmitter could stimulate prolactin either by inhibiting dopamine or by activating a prolactin simulator. In this dissertation, I show that it may in fact be doing both. Oxytocin is one potential, and particularly potent, prolactin stimulator that is itself implicated in reproduction and the associated social behaviors. Released at the posterior pituitary, I hypothesized that plasma oxytocin levels might be predictive of the large prolactin surges observed during times of fertility and pregnancy. However, the data fail to support such a clear direct correlation. Other hypothalamic factors that have also been proposed to be involved in prolactin regulation include the endogenous opioid dynorphin. One major hypothalamic source of dynorphin are the KNDy neurons that co-secrete kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin. All these neurotransmitters have been studied for their roles in luteinizing hormone regulation. Research presented here shows that the KNDy neuron dynorphin, while directly involved in luteinizing hormone surge release, is not involved in prolactin surge release. In fact, another KNDy product is likely involved in the single, estrogen-induced fertility surge, while another, still unknown, source of dynorphin is involved during the twice-daily prolactin surge pattern. Overall, this dissertation explores many aspects beyond just dopamine as possible regulatory inputs to the prolactin control circuit. Our simplified rodent models and the mathematical modeling help to show us the limits of our understanding so we can ask the right questions for the next experiments. This multi-angled approach, employing different physiological states in the animals and discussing possible network scenarios with modelers, gives depth to the research program described in this dissertation. Further work will better elucidate important aspects of fertility regulation that have undoubted implications for human and animal health. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Biological Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2015. / June 23, 2015. / cervical stimulation, dopamine, dynorphin, estradiol, oxytocin, prolactin / Includes bibliographical references. / Richard Bertram, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Paul Trombley, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Tim Logan, University Representative; Kim Hughes, Committee Member; Arturo Gonazalez-Iglesias, Committee Member.