The innate immune system is the first line of defence against pathogen invasion. The range of diseases that are caused by deficiencies in or deregulation of the innate immune system illustrates the importance of maintaining an effective balance between clearance of infectious agents and minimisation of inflammatory mediated tissue damage. This thesis explores the role of two proteins in the regulation of the innate immune system. Primarily, this work investigates the effect of human β-defensin 3 (hBD3) on the response to self-DNA and pathogenic DNA. HBD3 is an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), which has been shown to have a role in regulating the immune response; increased copy number of the region containing the gene for hBD3, DEFB103, is linked to an increased risk of psoriasis. Additionally, a similar cationic AMP, LL37, has been shown to exacerbate the pathogenesis of psoriasis by forming an immunogenic complex with self-DNA. This lead to the hypothesis that hBD3 may also affect the innate immune response to DNA. Therefore this project investigates what effect hBD3 has on the response of the innate immune system to self and pathogenic DNA. Flt-3 dendritic cells were used to show that whilst hBD3 increased cellular uptake of self-DNA, it did not convert self-DNA into an immune stimulus. However, hBD3 significantly exacerbated the response to bacterial DNA in a TLR9-dependent manner, also by increasing cellular uptake into FLDCs. The finding that hBD3 increased cellular uptake of both self- and pathogenic DNA suggests that at sites of infection or increased cell death, where DNA would be found in the extracellular environment, hBD3 may increase uptake into immune cells and could induce an increased immune response. Since increased hBD3 expression is induced by inflammatory stimuli, this process would cause a positive feedback loop of inflammation during bacterial infections. In conclusion, hBD3’s role in regulating the innate immune response to DNA is at the ligand-receptor level rather than affecting signalling pathways. Furthermore, hBD3 promotes the innate immune response to bacterial DNA by increasing the efficiency of cellular uptake possibly by inducing DNA aggregation. These results implicate a possible role for hBD3 in the earliest stages of psoriatic plaque development, which is often initiated or exacerbated by an infection, and this could be investigated further. Secondly, I investigated the innate immune function of an E3 ubiquitin ligase (E3L) not previously associated with human disease. Mutations in E3L have been identified in three microcephalic primordial dwarfism families; these patients also presented with recurrent respiratory illnesses. E3L has been implicated in the regulation of the innate immune system via interactions with signalling pathways downstream of the receptor, though its role is not clear. We hypothesised that E3L had a dual role both in regulating growth and cell division and in regulating the immune system. Primary patient fibroblasts did not demonstrate an altered cytokine response to bacterial or viral ligands, implying that E3L may have a specific function in immune cells. To investigate this further, and to provide a system to study E3L in vivo, two transgenic mouse lines were designed and engineered, firstly a conditional ‘knock-out’ designed to replicate some of the alternative isoforms of E3L seen in RT-PCRs, and secondly a ‘knock-in’ line to recapitulate the human mutation in exon 7 of E3L, R185X. These mouse lines should offer an insight into the developmental role for E3L, and contribute to establishing a potential role for E3L in the innate immune system. This thesis exemplifies the complexity of the innate immune system and the regulatory pathways that interact to maintain a delicate homeostasis preventing pathogenic inflammation. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms may shed light on the pathogenicity of diseases and identification of potential targets for therapeutics.

INTRODUCTION : Le retard de croissance intra-utérin (RCIU), la prééclampsie (PE) et l’accouchement prématuré (AP) sont d’importantes pathologies de la grossesse fortement associées à un mauvais fonctionnement du placenta, organe central au développement du fœtus. Environ 5-12% de toutes les grossesses sont pathologiques et ces dernières sont associées avec un risque accru de désordres neurodéveloppementaux chez l’enfant. L'inflammation est un point central à toutes les complications de la grossesse et le lien causal entre l’inflammation et ces pathologies a été démontré à l’aide de plusieurs modèles animaux d’inflammation prénatale, menant à des dommages cérébraux chez les nouveau-nés. Cependant, la majorité des modèles utilisent des stimuli infectieux, bien que des pathogènes soient rarement détectés en clinique. Malgré l'absence d'infection détectable, des évidences d'inflammation, telles que des niveaux élevés de cytokines pro-inflammatoires et d’alarmines, sont présentes. Les alarmines sont des médiateurs endogènes et une autre cause d'inflammation de plus en plus associée aux pathologies de la grossesse. L’acide urique est une des alarmines les plus étudiées comme médiateur endogène d’inflammation, mais son effet sur la grossesse est peu connu. Ainsi, mon hypothèse était que l’exposition prénatale particulièrement à l’acide urique serait associée aux complications de la grossesse, serait une cause de dommage placentaire et subséquemment altèrerait le neurodéveloppement fœtal, menant à des dommages cérébraux à long terme chez l’enfant. Mon OBJECTIF général était de comprendre le lien entre inflammation prénatale non-pathogénique, les complications de la grossesse et les effets sur le placenta et le cerveau en développement. Spécifiquement, j’ai déterminé la présence d’inflammation dans les complications majeures de la grossesse puis je me suis concentré sur la PE et l’implication de l’activation immunitaire dans cette pathologie. En parallèle, j’ai établi le lien entre l’inflammation non-pathogénique, les dommages placentaires et le RCIU. Finalement, j’ai évalué le neurodéveloppement après l’exposition in-utero à une inflammation non-pathogénique et j’ai investigué le potentiel d’un nouveau traitement dans mon modèle préclinique. MÉTHODOLOGIES ET RÉSULTATS: J’ai analysé le profil inflammatoire de 200 femmes avec ou sans complications de la grossesse (Ctrl, PE, AP, RCIU) et j’ai démontré que chaque complication présente un profil inflammatoire circulant distinct, particulièrement présent chez les femmes avec PE. De plus, j’ai analysé plus en profondeur les femmes avec PE et observé une augmentation d’acide urique dans la circulation maternelle, en lien avec un profil immunitaire qui était altéré et des changements structuraux au niveau du placenta. Pour déterminer les effets directs de l'acide urique, nous avons utilisé des cultures de trophoblastes primaires, cellule principale du placenta, et des explants placentaires humains. Nous avons démontré que l’acide urique induisait un profil pro-inflammatoire augmentant particulièrement la sécrétion d’IL-1β et d’IL-6 et induisait aussi l'apoptose des trophoblastes. En parallèle, j’ai développé un nouveau modèle préclinique de rates gestantes qui ont été injectées par voie intrapéritonéale avec l’acide urique du temps de gestation 18 (G18) à G21. L’injection d'acide urique in vivo à la fin de la gestation chez le rat a entrainé l’augmentation de cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α et IL-6) et l’infiltration de cellules immunitaires dans le placenta ainsi qu’un RCIU chez le fœtus qui persistait dans la période postnatale. De plus, les bébés exposés in-utero à l’acide urique avaient une altération neurodéveloppementale caractérisée par l’activation microgliale et astrogliale en plus d’une diminution des capacités motrices. Ces effets de l’acide urique étaient dépendants de l'IL-1β et bloqués par l’antagoniste spécifique du récepteur de l’IL-1 (IL-1Ra). CONCLUSIONS: L’inflammation est associée à toutes les complications de la grossesse, mais les profils diffèrent selon la pathologie étudiée. La PE est associée à des changements immunitaires importants. L'acide urique à l'interface materno-fœtale induit inflammation et altère les fonctions placentaires de façon IL-1-dépendante. Finalement, l’exposition à l’acide urique en fin de gestation chez le rat induit l’inflammation placentaire, le RCIU et altère le développement cérébral des bébés. Un traitement prénatal anti-inflammatoire permet de minimiser l’inflammation et ses effets négatifs sur le cerveau. / INTRODUCTION: Intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR), preeclampsia (PE) and preterm birth (PTB) are important pathologies of pregnancy strongly associated with poor placental function, a central organ for fetal development. About 5-12% of all pregnancies are pathological and this increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. Inflammation is central to all pregnancy complications and the causal link has been demonstrated with several animal models of prenatal inflammation leading to brain damage in newborns. However, these models use infectious stimuli although pathogens are rarely detected clinically. Despite the absence of detectable infection, evidence of inflammation, such as elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and alarmins, is observed. Alarmins are endogenous mediators, another cause of inflammation increasingly associated with pathological pregnancies. Uric acid is one of the most studied alarmins, however its effect on pregnancy is mostly unknown. Thus, my hypothesis was that prenatal exposure particularly to uric acid is associated with pregnancy complications and is a cause of placental damage which subsequently impairs fetal neurodevelopment, leading to long-term brain damage in the child. My general OBJECTIVE was to understand the link between non-pathogenic prenatal inflammation, pregnancy complications and its effect on the placenta and the developing brain. Specifically, I detected the presence of inflammation in major pregnancy complications and subsequently focused on PE and its immune activation. In parallel, I established the causal link between non-infectious inflammation, placental damage and IUGR. Finally, I evaluated brain development following in utero inflammation and investigated a therapeutic target in my preclinical model. METHODS AND RESULTS: I analyzed the inflammatory profile of 200 women with or without pregnancy complications (Ctrl, IUGR, PE, PTB) and demonstrated that each complication has a distinct circulating inflammatory profile, particularly in women with PE. In addition, I further analyzed women with PE and observed a uric acid increase in the maternal circulation, related to an altered immune profile and structural changes in the placenta. To determine the direct effects of uric acid, we used cultures of primary trophoblasts, the main cell of the placenta, and human placental explants. We have shown that uric acid induces a pro-inflammatory profile, particularly increasing the secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 and induces apoptosis of trophoblasts. In parallel, I developed a new preclinical model of pregnant rats that were injected intraperitoneally with uric acid from gestation time 18 (G18) to G21. The injection of uric acid at the end of gestation in the rat caused increase cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6), the infiltration of immune cells in the placenta as well as an IUGR in the fetus that persisted into the postnatal period. Additionally, babies exposed to uric acid in utero have neurodevelopmental impairment characterized by microglial and astroglial activation in addition to decreased motor function. These effects of uric acid was dependent on IL-1β and was blocked by the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra). CONCLUSIONS: Inflammation is associated with all pregnancy complications, however, with different profiles depending on the pathology studied. PE is associated with significant immune changes. Uric acid at the maternal-fetal interface induced inflammation and altered placental functions in an IL-1-dependent manner. Ultimately, exposure to uric acid in late rat pregnancy induced placental inflammation, IUGR, and impaired brain development. Prenatal anti-inflammatory treatment helped minimize inflammation and these negative effects on the brain.