In space and astrophysical plasmas, turbulence is responsible for transferring energy from large scales driven by violent events or instabilities, to smaller scales where turbulent energy is ultimately converted into plasma heat by dissipative mechanisms. In the inertial range, the self-similar turbulent energy cascade to smaller spatial scales is driven by the nonlinear interaction between counterpropagating Alfvén waves, denoted Alfvén wave collisions. For the more realistic case of the collision between two initially separated Alfvén wavepackets (rather than previous idealized, periodic cases), we use a nonlinear gyrokinetic simulation code, AstroGK, to demonstrate three key properties of strong Alfvén wave collisions: they (i) facilitate the perpendicular cascade of energy and (ii) generate current sheets self-consistently, and (iii) the modes mediating the nonlinear interaction are simply Alfvén waves. Once the turbulent cascade reaches the ion gyroradius scale, the Alfvén waves become dispersive and the turbulent energy starts to dissipate, energizing the particles via wave-particle interactions with eventual dissipation into plasma heat. The novel Field-Particle Correlation technique determines how turbulent energy dissipates into plasma heat by identifying which particles in velocity-space experience a net gain of energy. By utilizing knowledge of discrete particle arrival times, we devise a new algorithm called PATCH (Particle Arrival Time Correlation for Heliophysics) for implementing a field-particle correlator onboard spacecraft. Using AstroGK, we create synthetic spacecraft data mapped to realistic phase-space resolutions of modern spacecraft instruments. We then utilize Poisson statistics to determine the threshold number of particle counts needed to resolve the velocity-space signature of ion Landau damping using the PATCH algorithm.

Laser-atom interactions create atomic coherence and large nonlinear atomic polarization. We investigate resonant laser-atom interactions to generate large nonlinearities and control them using magneto-optical fields. Coherent control of high-order susceptibilities and magneto-optical rotation are demonstrated. Experiments are supported by theoretical studies that effectively describe the observed phenomena. It is shown that a new coherent field, with polarization orthogonal to a weak signal field, can be parametrically generated via an all-resonant four-wave-mixing process. This is demonstrated in a double-ladder system having two intermediate states between a ground and an excited state. It is shown that the parametricgeneration process can be coherently controlled by coupling lasers and magnetic fields. It is theoretically established that the underlying physics is a resonant three-photon process with a wide domain of control parameters. Electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT), where absorption of a weak probe is suppressed via quantum interference, is demonstrated in a usual three-level ladder system. It is observed that in contrast with EIT in a usual ladder system, addition of a second channel helps to suppress the absorption of two weak probe fields in the double-ladder system. The resulting enhancement of transmission in two different channels is due to gain caused by three-photon processes. Coherent control is strongly limited by coherence lifetime, which is the inverse of the dephasing rate. A lambda-system, having two ground states coupled to a common excited state by lasers, can generate a new eigen (dark)-state that is transparent to incoming fields and hence suppresses fluorescence. However, ground-state dephasing perturbs the dark state. A new method for measuring the ground-state dephasing rate from fluorescence signals is proposed and a proof-of-principle experiment demonstrated. While two laser fields in a lambda-system are resonant with their respective transitions, the atomic polarizations are very sensitive to an applied magnetic field. This effect can be used for optical magnetometry. The degree of sensitivity of the magnetometer is determined by two competing parameters–atomic density and laser intensity. It is shown experimentally that the optimal sensitivity reaches saturation, which is contrary to the idea that sensitivity increases indefinitely with an increase in the above parameters.

Nesse doutorado desenvolvemos um método para aumentar a precisão e sensibilidade das medidas de rotação não linear da polarização elíptica, RNLPE, usando um polarizador girante como analisador e um amplificador lock-in de fase dupla. Medidas de RNLPE são úteis na determinação da magnitude e sinal do índice de refração não linear, n2. Por se tratar de uma nova metodologia, confrontamos nossos resultados com resultados obtidos por varredura-Z, um método bem estabelecido e amplamente utilizado na determinação de n2. Com essa finalidade realizamos medidas de RNLPE e de varredura-Z em amostras com não linearidade eletrônica não ressonante, na condição de feixe fracamente focalizado. Os resultados obtidos comprovaram a equivalência entre as duas técnicas em termos de sensibilidade, precisão e simplicidade. Propusemos ainda uma configuração na qual múltiplas amostras são medidas simultaneamente em uma única varredura, condição de feixe fortemente focalizado. Esse método autorreferenciado permite melhor comparação entre os materiais já que o sinal de uma referência e da amostra em estudo são obtidos simultaneamente, sob as mesmas condições experimentais, além de permitir uma investigacão das não linearidades locais. Uma vez comprovado o potencial das medidas de RNLPE na condição de focalização forte passamos a estudar a contribuição de não linearidades não instantâneas pela medida de n2 em função da duração do pulso. Variando a duração do pulso estudamos não linearidades em amostras líquidas que possuem além da contribuição de efeito instantâneo eletrônico, efeitos nucleares não instantâneos como os de origem reorientacional lento. Um modelo empírico da dependência da não linearidade em função da duração do pulso foi proposto para explicar os resultados obtidos, no qual foi possível diferenciar as não linearidades instantâneas das não instantâneas e atribuir à última um tempo de resposta. / In this work we have developed a method to increase accuracy and sensitivity of the nonlinear rotation of elliptical polarization measurements by NER using a rotating polarizer as an analyzer and a dual-phase lock-in amplifier. NER measurements are useful in determining the magnitude and signal of the nonlinear refractive index, n2, of different materials. Because this is a new methodology, we compared our results with those obtained by Z-scan, a well-established and widely used method in determining n2. For this purpose we performed NER and Z-scan measurements on samples with pure non-resonant electronic nonlinearity, at weakly focused beam condition. The results obtained have shown the equivalence between both techniques in terms of sensitivity, precision and simplicity. We also proposed a configuration in which multiple samples are measured simultaneously in a single scan, at strongly focused beam condition. This self-referenced method allows better comparison between the materials since the signal of a reference and the sample under study are obtained simultaneously, under the same experimental conditions, besides allowing measuring the local nonlinearities. Once we verified the potential of NER measurements in the tightly focused condition we proceeded to study the contribution of non-instantaneous nonlinearities by measuring n2 as a function of the pulse duration. By varying the pulse duration we studied nonlinearities in liquid samples that have, besides the contribution of electronic instantaneous effect, contribution of non-instantaneous nuclear effects of slow orientational origin. An empirical model of the dependence of nonlinearity as a function of pulse duration was proposed to explain the results obtained, in which instantaneous nonlinearities and non-instantaneous nonlinearities could be discriminate and a response time to the latter could be assigned.

Nesse doutorado desenvolvemos um método para aumentar a precisão e sensibilidade das medidas de rotação não linear da polarização elíptica, RNLPE, usando um polarizador girante como analisador e um amplificador lock-in de fase dupla. Medidas de RNLPE são úteis na determinação da magnitude e sinal do índice de refração não linear, n2. Por se tratar de uma nova metodologia, confrontamos nossos resultados com resultados obtidos por varredura-Z, um método bem estabelecido e amplamente utilizado na determinação de n2. Com essa finalidade realizamos medidas de RNLPE e de varredura-Z em amostras com não linearidade eletrônica não ressonante, na condição de feixe fracamente focalizado. Os resultados obtidos comprovaram a equivalência entre as duas técnicas em termos de sensibilidade, precisão e simplicidade. Propusemos ainda uma configuração na qual múltiplas amostras são medidas simultaneamente em uma única varredura, condição de feixe fortemente focalizado. Esse método autorreferenciado permite melhor comparação entre os materiais já que o sinal de uma referência e da amostra em estudo são obtidos simultaneamente, sob as mesmas condições experimentais, além de permitir uma investigacão das não linearidades locais. Uma vez comprovado o potencial das medidas de RNLPE na condição de focalização forte passamos a estudar a contribuição de não linearidades não instantâneas pela medida de n2 em função da duração do pulso. Variando a duração do pulso estudamos não linearidades em amostras líquidas que possuem além da contribuição de efeito instantâneo eletrônico, efeitos nucleares não instantâneos como os de origem reorientacional lento. Um modelo empírico da dependência da não linearidade em função da duração do pulso foi proposto para explicar os resultados obtidos, no qual foi possível diferenciar as não linearidades instantâneas das não instantâneas e atribuir à última um tempo de resposta. / In this work we have developed a method to increase accuracy and sensitivity of the nonlinear rotation of elliptical polarization measurements by NER using a rotating polarizer as an analyzer and a dual-phase lock-in amplifier. NER measurements are useful in determining the magnitude and signal of the nonlinear refractive index, n2, of different materials. Because this is a new methodology, we compared our results with those obtained by Z-scan, a well-established and widely used method in determining n2. For this purpose we performed NER and Z-scan measurements on samples with pure non-resonant electronic nonlinearity, at weakly focused beam condition. The results obtained have shown the equivalence between both techniques in terms of sensitivity, precision and simplicity. We also proposed a configuration in which multiple samples are measured simultaneously in a single scan, at strongly focused beam condition. This self-referenced method allows better comparison between the materials since the signal of a reference and the sample under study are obtained simultaneously, under the same experimental conditions, besides allowing measuring the local nonlinearities. Once we verified the potential of NER measurements in the tightly focused condition we proceeded to study the contribution of non-instantaneous nonlinearities by measuring n2 as a function of the pulse duration. By varying the pulse duration we studied nonlinearities in liquid samples that have, besides the contribution of electronic instantaneous effect, contribution of non-instantaneous nuclear effects of slow orientational origin. An empirical model of the dependence of nonlinearity as a function of pulse duration was proposed to explain the results obtained, in which instantaneous nonlinearities and non-instantaneous nonlinearities could be discriminate and a response time to the latter could be assigned.

Alors que certains mécanismes pourtant jugés cruciaux pour la transformation de la pluie en débit restent peu ou mal compris, le concept de connectivité hydrologique a récemment été proposé pour expliquer pourquoi certains processus sont déclenchés de manière épisodique en fonction des caractéristiques des événements de pluie et de la teneur en eau des sols avant l’événement. L’adoption de ce nouveau concept en hydrologie reste cependant difficile puisqu’il n’y a pas de consensus sur la définition de la connectivité, sa mesure, son intégration dans les modèles hydrologiques et son comportement lors des transferts d’échelles spatiales et temporelles. Le but de ce travail doctoral est donc de préciser la définition, la mesure, l’agrégation et la prédiction des processus liés à la connectivité hydrologique en s’attardant aux questions suivantes : 1) Quel cadre méthodologique adopter pour une étude sur la connectivité hydrologique ?, 2) Comment évaluer le degré de connectivité hydrologique des bassins versants à partir de données de terrain ?, et 3) Dans quelle mesure nos connaissances sur la connectivité hydrologique doivent-elles conduire à la modification des postulats de modélisation hydrologique ? Trois approches d’étude sont différenciées, soit i) une approche de type « boite noire », basée uniquement sur l’exploitation des données de pluie et de débits sans examiner le fonctionnement interne du bassin versant ; ii) une approche de type « boite grise » reposant sur l’étude de données géochimiques ponctuelles illustrant la dynamique interne du bassin versant ; et iii) une approche de type « boite blanche » axée sur l’analyse de patrons spatiaux exhaustifs de la topographie de surface, la topographie de subsurface et l’humidité du sol. Ces trois approches sont ensuite validées expérimentalement dans le bassin versant de l’Hermine (Basses Laurentides, Québec). Quatre types de réponses hydrologiques sont distingués en fonction de leur magnitude et de leur synchronisme, sachant que leur présence relative dépend des conditions antécédentes. Les forts débits enregistrés à l’exutoire du bassin versant sont associés à une contribution accrue de certaines sources de ruissellement, ce qui témoigne d’un lien hydraulique accru et donc d’un fort degré de connectivité hydrologique entre les sources concernées et le cours d’eau. Les aires saturées couvrant des superficies supérieures à 0,85 ha sont jugées critiques pour la genèse de forts débits de crue. La preuve est aussi faite que les propriétés statistiques des patrons d’humidité du sol en milieu forestier tempéré humide sont nettement différentes de celles observées en milieu de prairie tempéré sec, d’où la nécessité d’utiliser des méthodes de calcul différentes pour dériver des métriques spatiales de connectivité dans les deux types de milieux. Enfin, la double existence de sources contributives « linéaires » et « non linéaires » est mise en évidence à l’Hermine. Ces résultats suggèrent la révision de concepts qui sous-tendent l’élaboration et l’exécution des modèles hydrologiques. L’originalité de cette thèse est le fait même de son sujet. En effet, les objectifs de recherche poursuivis sont conformes à la théorie hydrologique renouvelée qui prône l’arrêt des études de particularismes de petite échelle au profit de l’examen des propriétés émergentes des bassins versants telles que la connectivité hydrologique. La contribution majeure de cette thèse consiste ainsi en la proposition d’une définition unifiée de la connectivité, d’un cadre méthodologique, d’approches de mesure sur le terrain, d’outils techniques et de pistes de solution pour la modélisation des systèmes hydrologiques. / As core processes of the transformation of rainfall into runoff are not fully understood, the concept of hydrologic connectivity has been put forward to explain why some processes occur episodically, in a very discrete short-lived manner, as a response to intermittent atmospheric water input, storm characteristics and soil moisture storage. Even though emerging as a very powerful tool for explaining the growing numbers of nonlinear hydrologic behaviours documented around the world, the hydrologic connectivity concept raises major issues for future research in catchment hydrology in terms of its definition, its measure, its integration into hydrological models and its scaling in the space and the time domains. The aim of this doctoral work is to precise the definition, the measure, the scaling and the prediction of processes underlying hydrologic connectivity while focusing on the following research questions: (1) What methodological framework should guide investigations of hydrologic connectivity?, (2) How to assess hydrologic connectivity from field data?, and (3) To what extent can the ongoing knowledge acquisition on hydrologic connectivity be used to improve success with hydrological modeling? Three study approaches are discriminated, namely: (i) a black box approach that only relies on rainfall and runoff data without examining the internal catchment behaviour; (ii) a grey box approach based on punctual geochemical data illustrating the catchment internal state; and (iii) a white box approach involving exhaustive spatial patterns of surface and subsurface topographic variables and soil moisture. These three approaches are then tested against field data from the Hermine catchment (Lower Laurentians, Quebec). It is possible to classify the Hermine catchment hydrological responses with regards to their magnitude and their timing, the switching from one response type to another depending on antecedent conditions. It is revealed that high discharge values monitored at the catchment outlet are produced by increased contributions from specific runoff sources, thus hinting towards a reinforced hydraulic linkage and an enhanced degree of connectivity between runoff sources and the stream channel. It is established that saturated areas whose spatial extent exceeds 0.85 ha are critical for high runoff generation. Soil moisture spatial patterns in temperate humid forested catchments are shown to have statistical properties that are very different from those encountered in temperate rangelands; hence the necessity of using different spatial connectivity metrics in these contrasted environments. The co-existence of “linear” and “nonlinear” contributing sources is also illustrated in the Hermine catchment. These results suggest that some concepts should be revised for hydrological modeling purposes. The originality of the present thesis is mainly inherited from its prime focus. The pursued research objectives are in accordance with the future trend in catchment hydrology, especially as hydrologists are urged to move from site-specific experiments and results to more easily generalizable concepts that favour the study of emergent catchment properties such as connectivity. Thus, the major contribution of this thesis is the proposal of a unified definition of connectivity, a comprehensive methodological framework, technical tools and operational ideas for the better performance of hydrological models.

Alors que certains mécanismes pourtant jugés cruciaux pour la transformation de la pluie en débit restent peu ou mal compris, le concept de connectivité hydrologique a récemment été proposé pour expliquer pourquoi certains processus sont déclenchés de manière épisodique en fonction des caractéristiques des événements de pluie et de la teneur en eau des sols avant l’événement. L’adoption de ce nouveau concept en hydrologie reste cependant difficile puisqu’il n’y a pas de consensus sur la définition de la connectivité, sa mesure, son intégration dans les modèles hydrologiques et son comportement lors des transferts d’échelles spatiales et temporelles. Le but de ce travail doctoral est donc de préciser la définition, la mesure, l’agrégation et la prédiction des processus liés à la connectivité hydrologique en s’attardant aux questions suivantes : 1) Quel cadre méthodologique adopter pour une étude sur la connectivité hydrologique ?, 2) Comment évaluer le degré de connectivité hydrologique des bassins versants à partir de données de terrain ?, et 3) Dans quelle mesure nos connaissances sur la connectivité hydrologique doivent-elles conduire à la modification des postulats de modélisation hydrologique ? Trois approches d’étude sont différenciées, soit i) une approche de type « boite noire », basée uniquement sur l’exploitation des données de pluie et de débits sans examiner le fonctionnement interne du bassin versant ; ii) une approche de type « boite grise » reposant sur l’étude de données géochimiques ponctuelles illustrant la dynamique interne du bassin versant ; et iii) une approche de type « boite blanche » axée sur l’analyse de patrons spatiaux exhaustifs de la topographie de surface, la topographie de subsurface et l’humidité du sol. Ces trois approches sont ensuite validées expérimentalement dans le bassin versant de l’Hermine (Basses Laurentides, Québec). Quatre types de réponses hydrologiques sont distingués en fonction de leur magnitude et de leur synchronisme, sachant que leur présence relative dépend des conditions antécédentes. Les forts débits enregistrés à l’exutoire du bassin versant sont associés à une contribution accrue de certaines sources de ruissellement, ce qui témoigne d’un lien hydraulique accru et donc d’un fort degré de connectivité hydrologique entre les sources concernées et le cours d’eau. Les aires saturées couvrant des superficies supérieures à 0,85 ha sont jugées critiques pour la genèse de forts débits de crue. La preuve est aussi faite que les propriétés statistiques des patrons d’humidité du sol en milieu forestier tempéré humide sont nettement différentes de celles observées en milieu de prairie tempéré sec, d’où la nécessité d’utiliser des méthodes de calcul différentes pour dériver des métriques spatiales de connectivité dans les deux types de milieux. Enfin, la double existence de sources contributives « linéaires » et « non linéaires » est mise en évidence à l’Hermine. Ces résultats suggèrent la révision de concepts qui sous-tendent l’élaboration et l’exécution des modèles hydrologiques. L’originalité de cette thèse est le fait même de son sujet. En effet, les objectifs de recherche poursuivis sont conformes à la théorie hydrologique renouvelée qui prône l’arrêt des études de particularismes de petite échelle au profit de l’examen des propriétés émergentes des bassins versants telles que la connectivité hydrologique. La contribution majeure de cette thèse consiste ainsi en la proposition d’une définition unifiée de la connectivité, d’un cadre méthodologique, d’approches de mesure sur le terrain, d’outils techniques et de pistes de solution pour la modélisation des systèmes hydrologiques. / As core processes of the transformation of rainfall into runoff are not fully understood, the concept of hydrologic connectivity has been put forward to explain why some processes occur episodically, in a very discrete short-lived manner, as a response to intermittent atmospheric water input, storm characteristics and soil moisture storage. Even though emerging as a very powerful tool for explaining the growing numbers of nonlinear hydrologic behaviours documented around the world, the hydrologic connectivity concept raises major issues for future research in catchment hydrology in terms of its definition, its measure, its integration into hydrological models and its scaling in the space and the time domains. The aim of this doctoral work is to precise the definition, the measure, the scaling and the prediction of processes underlying hydrologic connectivity while focusing on the following research questions: (1) What methodological framework should guide investigations of hydrologic connectivity?, (2) How to assess hydrologic connectivity from field data?, and (3) To what extent can the ongoing knowledge acquisition on hydrologic connectivity be used to improve success with hydrological modeling? Three study approaches are discriminated, namely: (i) a black box approach that only relies on rainfall and runoff data without examining the internal catchment behaviour; (ii) a grey box approach based on punctual geochemical data illustrating the catchment internal state; and (iii) a white box approach involving exhaustive spatial patterns of surface and subsurface topographic variables and soil moisture. These three approaches are then tested against field data from the Hermine catchment (Lower Laurentians, Quebec). It is possible to classify the Hermine catchment hydrological responses with regards to their magnitude and their timing, the switching from one response type to another depending on antecedent conditions. It is revealed that high discharge values monitored at the catchment outlet are produced by increased contributions from specific runoff sources, thus hinting towards a reinforced hydraulic linkage and an enhanced degree of connectivity between runoff sources and the stream channel. It is established that saturated areas whose spatial extent exceeds 0.85 ha are critical for high runoff generation. Soil moisture spatial patterns in temperate humid forested catchments are shown to have statistical properties that are very different from those encountered in temperate rangelands; hence the necessity of using different spatial connectivity metrics in these contrasted environments. The co-existence of “linear” and “nonlinear” contributing sources is also illustrated in the Hermine catchment. These results suggest that some concepts should be revised for hydrological modeling purposes. The originality of the present thesis is mainly inherited from its prime focus. The pursued research objectives are in accordance with the future trend in catchment hydrology, especially as hydrologists are urged to move from site-specific experiments and results to more easily generalizable concepts that favour the study of emergent catchment properties such as connectivity. Thus, the major contribution of this thesis is the proposal of a unified definition of connectivity, a comprehensive methodological framework, technical tools and operational ideas for the better performance of hydrological models.