Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:06:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6277.pdf: 15816665 bytes, checksum: 105661656ee67fe816f34a96605797f9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-01-23 / The development of new methods and noisy images filtering techniques still attract researchers, which seek to reduce the noise with the minimal loss of details, edges, resolution and removal of fine structures of the image. Moreover, it is extremely important to expand the capacity of the filters for the different noise models present in the Image and Signal Processing literature, like the multiplicative noise speckle, present in the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. This Master s degree thesis aims to use a recent denoising algorithm: the nonlocal means (NLM), developed for the additive white gaussian noise (AWGN), and expand, analyze and compare its capacity for intensity SAR images denoising (despeckling), which are contaminated with the speckle. This expansion of the NLM filter is based with the use of the stochastic distances and the comparison of the estimated parameters with de G0 and the inverse Gamma distributions. Finally, this work compares the synthetic and real results of the proposed filter with some filters of the literature. / A elaboração de novos métodos e técnicas de filtragem de imagens ruidosas ainda atraem pesquisadores, que buscam a redução de ruído com a mínima perda dos detalhes, bordas, resolução e remoção de estruturas finas da imagem. Além disto, é de extrema importância ampliar a capacidade dos filtros para diversos modelos de ruído existentes na literatura de Processamento de Imagens e Sinais, como o ruído multiplicativo speckle , presente em imagens de radar de abertura sintética (SAR). Esta dissertação de Mestrado tem o objetivo de utilizar um algoritmo de filtragem recente: o nonlocal means (NLM), desenvolvido para o ruído branco aditivo gaussiano (AWGN), e ampliar, analisar e comparar a sua capacidade para a filtragem de imagens SAR de intensidade ( despeckling ), as quais são contaminadas com o speckle . Esta ampliação do filtro NLM é baseada no uso das distâncias estocásticas e na comparação dos parâmetros estimados através das distribuições G0 e da inversa da Gama. Por fim, este trabalho compara os resultados sintéticos e reais do filtro proposto com alguns filtros da literatura.

<p>In this thesis, we study three different image interpolation applications in high definition (HD) video processing: video de-interlacing, frame rate up-conversion, and view interpolation. We propose novel methods for these applications which are based on the concept of Nonlocal-Means (NL-Means).</p> <p>In the first part of this thesis, we introduce a new de-interlacing method which uses NL-Means algorithm. In this method, every interpolated pixel is set to a weighted average of its neighboring pixels in the current, previous, and the next frames. Weights of the pixels used in this filtering are calculated according to the radiometric distance between the surrounding areas of the pixel being interpolated and the neighboring pixels. One of the main challenges of the NL-Means is finding a suitable size for the neighborhoods (similarity window) that we want to find radiometric distance for them. We address this problem by using a steering kernel in our distance function to adapt the effective size of similarity window to the local information of the image. In order to calculate the weights of the filter, we need to have an estimate of the progressive frames. Therefore, we introduce a low computational initial de-interlacing method. This method interpolates the missing pixel along a direction based on two criteria of having minimum variation and being used by the above or below pixels. This method preserves the edge structures and yields superior visual quality compared to the simple edge-based line-averaging and many other simple iv de-interlacing methods.</p> <p>The second part of this thesis is devoted to the frame rate up-conversion application. Our frame rate up-conversion method is based on two main steps: NL-Means and foreground /background segmentation. In this method, for every pixel being interpolated first we check whether it belongs to the background or foreground. If the pixel belongs to the background and the values of the next and previous frames’ pixels are the same, we simply set the pixel intensity to the intensity of its location in the previous or next frame. If the pixel belongs to the foreground, we use NL-Means based interpolation for it. We adjust the equations of the NL-means for frame rate up-conversion so that we do not need to have the neighborhoods of the intermediate for calculating the weights of the filter. The comparison of our method with other existing methods shows the better performance of our method.</p> <p>In the third part of this thesis, we introduce a novel view interpolation method without using disparity estimation. In this method, we let every pixel in the intermediate view be the output of the NL-means using the pixels in the reference views. The experimental results demonstrate the better quality of our results compared with other algorithms which use disparity estimation.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:06:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6285.pdf: 2877079 bytes, checksum: 80439eede94d8bbebc2443de9d032d34 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-23 / Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos / A common problem to applications such as positron emission tomography, low-exposure X-ray imaging, fluorescence microscopy, optical and infrared astronomy, and others, is the degradation of the original signal by Poisson Noise. This problem arises in applications in which the image acquisition process is based on counting photons reaching a detector surface during a given exposure time. Recently, a new algorithm for image denoising, called Nonlocal-Means (NLM), was proposed. The NLM algorithm consists of a nonlocal approach that explores the inherent image redundancy for denoising, that is, it explores the principle in which, in natural images, there are similar regions, yet locally disjoint. NLM was originally proposed for additive noise reduction. The goal of this work is to extend the NLM algorithm for Poisson noise filtering. To achieve this goal, symmetric divergences, also known as stochastic distances, have been applied as similarity metrics to the NLM algorithm. Stochastic distances assume a parametric model for the data distribution. Therefore they can accommodate different stochastic noise models. However, knowledge of the model parameters is necessary to calculate the stochastic distances. In this research, estimation and non-local filtering schemes were considered under Poisson noise hypothesis, leading to competitive results with the state of- the-art. / Um problema comum a aplicações como tomografia por emissão de pósitrons, imageamento por baixa exposição de raios-X, microscopia de fluorescência, astronomia ótica ou por infravermelho, dentre outras, é a degradação do sinal original por ruído Poisson. Esse problema surge em aplicações nas quais o processo de aquisição de imagem se baseia na contagem de fótons atingindo a superfície de um detector durante um dado tempo de exposição. Recentemente, um novo algoritmo para a redução de ruído em imagens, chamado Non Local-Means (NLM) foi proposto. O algoritmo NLM consiste em uma abordagem não-local que explora a redundância inerente da imagem para a filtragem de ruído, isto é, explora o principio em que, em imagens naturais existem muitas regiões similares, porém, localmente disjuntas. Essa abordagem foi originalmente proposta para a redução de ruído aditivo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estender o algoritmo NLM para a filtragem de ruído Poisson, que é dependente de sinal. Para alcançar esse propósito, divergências simétricas, também conhecidas como distâncias estocásticas, foram utilizadas como métricas de similaridade para o algoritmo NLM. Distâncias estocásticas assumem um modelo paramétrico sobre a distribuição dos dados, portanto podem acomodar diferentes modelos estocásticos de ruído. No entanto, conhecimento dos parâmetros de modelo é necessário para o cálculo das distâncias estocásticas. Neste trabalho de pesquisa, esquemas de estimativa e filtragem não-local foram considerados sobre hipótese de ruído Poisson, levando a resultados competitivos com o estado-da-arte.

Esse trabalho apresenta uma nova proposta do algoritmo de médias não-locais (NLM - Non-Local Means) para a filtragem do ruído quântico de imagens mamográficas digitais adquiridas com dose de radiação reduzida. A redução nas doses de radiação tem como objetivo principal minimizar os riscos de indução ao câncer de mama causado pela exposição do paciente à radiação ionizante no momento do exame. No entanto, a qualidade da imagem mamográfica diminui com a redução da dose de radiação e o ruído predominante nesse caso é o ruído quântico, que segue a distribuição de Poisson e é dependente do sinal. Como o algoritmo NLM foi originalmente desenvolvido para filtragem de ruído Gaussiano independente do sinal, a proposta desse trabalho foi de adaptar o algoritmo NLM original de modo que ele se tornasse mais adequado para filtragem do ruído encontrado nas imagens mamográficas digitais. Nessa nova abordagem, chamada de Variance Map Non-local Means (VM-NLM), a filtragem do ruído quântico é realizada no próprio domínio da imagem, levando-se em conta a variância do ruído em cada pixel da imagem, já que o ruído é dependente do sinal. Com isso, elimina-se a necessidade de realizar uma estimativa precisa dos parâmetros do ruído para o uso de uma transformada de estabilização de variância (como a transformada generalizada de Anscombe), antes do processo de filtragem. Essa estimativa normalmente requer medidas preliminares no equipamento mamográfico, cujo acesso nem sempre é viável na prática. A proposta foi avaliada em três bancos de imagens mamográficas adquiridas com diferentes doses de radiação. As avaliações de desempenho foram realizadas comparando objetivamente a qualidade das imagens mamográficas obtidas com a dose padrão de radiação com as adquiridas com doses reduzidas, após a filtragem do ruído. Os resultados obtidos com o algoritmo proposto mostraram que ele produz imagens mamográficas mais nítidas e com melhor preservação de bordas e pequenos detalhes do que o algoritmo NLM original. / This work presents a new proposal from the non-local means algorithm (NLM - Non-Local Means) for filtering the quantum noise of digital mammography images acquired with reduced radiation dose. The reduction in radiation doses aims to minimize the risk of inducing breast cancer caused by patient exposure to ionizing radiation during the examination. However, the mammographic image quality decreases with the reduction of the radiation dose and the predominant noise in this case is the quantum noise, which follows the Poisson distribution and it is dependent of the signal. As the NLM algorithm was originally developed for filtering additive Gaussian noise, the purpose of this study was to adapt the original NLM algorithm so that it becomes more suitable for filtering the noise found in digital mammographic images. In this new approach, called Variance Map Non-local Means (VM-NLM), the filtering of the quantum noise is performed in the image domain, considering the noise variance in each pixel of the image, since the noise depends on the pixel value. Thus, it eliminates the need for an accurate estimate of the noise parameters for the use of a variance stabilization transform (such as generalized Anscombe Transformation) before the filtering process. This estimate typically requires preliminary measurements in the mammographic equipment, which is not always viable in clinical practice. The proposal was evaluated in three databases of mammographic images acquired with different radiation doses. Performance evaluations were conducted comparing objectively the quality of mammographic images acquired with standard radiation dose and with reduced doses, after filtering the noise. The results obtained with the proposed algorithm showed that it produces sharper mammographic images with better preservation of edges and small details than the original NLM algorithm.

Esse trabalho apresenta uma nova proposta do algoritmo de médias não-locais (NLM - Non-Local Means) para a filtragem do ruído quântico de imagens mamográficas digitais adquiridas com dose de radiação reduzida. A redução nas doses de radiação tem como objetivo principal minimizar os riscos de indução ao câncer de mama causado pela exposição do paciente à radiação ionizante no momento do exame. No entanto, a qualidade da imagem mamográfica diminui com a redução da dose de radiação e o ruído predominante nesse caso é o ruído quântico, que segue a distribuição de Poisson e é dependente do sinal. Como o algoritmo NLM foi originalmente desenvolvido para filtragem de ruído Gaussiano independente do sinal, a proposta desse trabalho foi de adaptar o algoritmo NLM original de modo que ele se tornasse mais adequado para filtragem do ruído encontrado nas imagens mamográficas digitais. Nessa nova abordagem, chamada de Variance Map Non-local Means (VM-NLM), a filtragem do ruído quântico é realizada no próprio domínio da imagem, levando-se em conta a variância do ruído em cada pixel da imagem, já que o ruído é dependente do sinal. Com isso, elimina-se a necessidade de realizar uma estimativa precisa dos parâmetros do ruído para o uso de uma transformada de estabilização de variância (como a transformada generalizada de Anscombe), antes do processo de filtragem. Essa estimativa normalmente requer medidas preliminares no equipamento mamográfico, cujo acesso nem sempre é viável na prática. A proposta foi avaliada em três bancos de imagens mamográficas adquiridas com diferentes doses de radiação. As avaliações de desempenho foram realizadas comparando objetivamente a qualidade das imagens mamográficas obtidas com a dose padrão de radiação com as adquiridas com doses reduzidas, após a filtragem do ruído. Os resultados obtidos com o algoritmo proposto mostraram que ele produz imagens mamográficas mais nítidas e com melhor preservação de bordas e pequenos detalhes do que o algoritmo NLM original. / This work presents a new proposal from the non-local means algorithm (NLM - Non-Local Means) for filtering the quantum noise of digital mammography images acquired with reduced radiation dose. The reduction in radiation doses aims to minimize the risk of inducing breast cancer caused by patient exposure to ionizing radiation during the examination. However, the mammographic image quality decreases with the reduction of the radiation dose and the predominant noise in this case is the quantum noise, which follows the Poisson distribution and it is dependent of the signal. As the NLM algorithm was originally developed for filtering additive Gaussian noise, the purpose of this study was to adapt the original NLM algorithm so that it becomes more suitable for filtering the noise found in digital mammographic images. In this new approach, called Variance Map Non-local Means (VM-NLM), the filtering of the quantum noise is performed in the image domain, considering the noise variance in each pixel of the image, since the noise depends on the pixel value. Thus, it eliminates the need for an accurate estimate of the noise parameters for the use of a variance stabilization transform (such as generalized Anscombe Transformation) before the filtering process. This estimate typically requires preliminary measurements in the mammographic equipment, which is not always viable in clinical practice. The proposal was evaluated in three databases of mammographic images acquired with different radiation doses. Performance evaluations were conducted comparing objectively the quality of mammographic images acquired with standard radiation dose and with reduced doses, after filtering the noise. The results obtained with the proposed algorithm showed that it produces sharper mammographic images with better preservation of edges and small details than the original NLM algorithm.

Multitemporal SAR images have been increasingly used for the detection of different types of environmental changes. The detection of urban changes using SAR images is complicated due to the complex mixture of the urban environment and the special characteristics of SAR images, for example, the existence of speckle. This thesis investigates urban change detection using multitemporal SAR images with the following specific objectives: (1) to investigate unsupervised change detection, (2) to investigate effective methods for reduction of the speckle effect in change detection, (3) to investigate spatio-contextual change detection, (4) to investigate object-based unsupervised change detection, and (5) to investigate a new technique for object-based change image generation. Beijing and Shanghai, the largest cities in China, were selected as study areas. Multitemporal SAR images acquired by ERS-2 SAR and ENVISAT ASAR sensors were used for pixel-based change detection. For the object-based approaches, TerraSAR-X images were used. In Paper I, the unsupervised detection of urban change was investigated using the Kittler-Illingworth algorithm. A modified ratio operator that combines positive and negative changes was used to construct the change image. Four density function models were tested and compared. Among them, the log-normal and Nakagami ratio models achieved the best results. Despite the good performance of the algorithm, the obtained results suffer from the loss of fine geometric detail in general. This was a consequence of the use of local adaptive filters for speckle suppression. Paper II addresses this problem using the nonlocal means (NLM) denoising algorithm for speckle suppression and detail preservation. In this algorithm, denoising was achieved through a moving weighted average. The weights are a function of the similarity of small image patches defined around each pixel in the image. To decrease the computational complexity, principle component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the dimensionality of the neighbourhood feature vectors. Simple methods to estimate the number of significant PCA components to be retained for weights computation and the required noise variance were proposed. The experimental results showed that the NLM algorithm successfully suppressed speckle effects, while preserving fine geometric detail in the scene. The analysis also indicates that filtering the change image instead of the individual SAR images was effective in terms of the quality of the results and the time needed to carry out the computation. The Markov random field (MRF) change detection algorithm showed limited capacity to simultaneously maintain fine geometric detail in urban areas and combat the effect of speckle. To overcome this problem, Paper III utilizes the NLM theory to define a nonlocal constraint on pixels class-labels. The iterated conditional mode (ICM) scheme for the optimization of the MRF criterion function is extended to include a new step that maximizes the nonlocal probability model. Compared with the traditional MRF algorithm, the experimental results showed that the proposed algorithm was superior in preserving fine structural detail, effective in reducing the effect of speckle, less sensitive to the value of the contextual parameter, and less affected by the quality of the initial change map. Paper IV investigates object-based unsupervised change detection using very high resolution TerraSAR-X images over urban areas. Three algorithms, i.e., Kittler-Illingworth, Otsu, and outlier detection, were tested and compared. The multitemporal images were segmented using multidate segmentation strategy. The analysis reveals that the three algorithms achieved similar accuracies. The achieved accuracies were very close to the maximum possible, given the modified ratio image as an input. This maximum, however, was not very high. This was attributed, partially, to the low capacity of the modified ratio image to accentuate the difference between changed and unchanged areas. Consequently, Paper V proposes a new object-based change image generation technique. The strong intensity variations associated with high resolution and speckle effects render object mean intensity unreliable feature. The modified ratio image is, therefore, less efficient in emphasizing the contrast between the classes. An alternative representation of the change data was proposed. To measure the intensity of change at the object in isolation of disturbances caused by strong intensity variations and speckle effects, two techniques based on the Fourier transform and the Wavelet transform of the change signal were developed. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the result show that improved change detection accuracies can be obtained by classifying the proposed change variables. / <p>QC 20150529</p>

Speckle noise occurs in a wide range of images due to sampling and digital degradation. Understanding how noise can be present in images have led to multiple denoising techniques. Most of these denoising techniques assume equal noise distribution. When the noise present in the image is not uniform, the resulting denoised image becomes less than the highest standard or quality. For this research, we will be focusing on speckle noise. Unlike Gaussian noise, which affects single pixels on an image, speckle noise affects multiple pixels. Hence it is not possible to remove speckle noise with the traditional gaussian denoising model. We develope a more accurate speckle denoising model and its stable numerical methods. This model is based on the TV minimization and the associated non-linear PDE and Krissian $et$ $al$.'s speckle noise equation model. A realistic and efficient speckle noise equation model was introduced with an edge enhancing feature by adopting a non-convex functional. An effective numerical scheme was introduced and its stability was proved. Also, while working with TV minimization for non-linear PDE and Krissian $et$ $al$ we used a dual approach for faster computation. This work is based on Chambolle's approach for image denoising. The NLM algorithm takes advantage of the high degree of redundancy of any natural image. Also, the NLM algorithm is very accurate since all pixels contribute for denoising at any given pixel. However, due to non-local averaging, one major drawback is computational cost. For this research, we will discuss new denoising techniques based on NLM and total variation for images contaminated by speckle noise. We introduce blockwise and selective denoising methods based on NLM technique and Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) methods for total variation to enhance computational efficiency. Our PDE methods have shown to be very computational efficient and as mentioned before the NLM process is very accurate.

This dissertation is about the partial differential equation (PDE) based image denoising models. In particular, we are interested about speckle noise images. We provide the mathematical analysis of existing speckle denoising models and propose three new models based on total variation minimization methods. The first model is developed using a new speckle noise model and the solution of associated numerical scheme is proven to be stable. The second one is a speckle version of Chambolle algorithm and the convergence of the numerical solution was proved under certain assumptions. The final model is a nonlocal PDE based speckle denoising model derived by combining the excellent noise removal properties of the nonlocal means algorithm with the PDE models. We enhanced the computational efficiency of this model by adopting the Split Bregman method. Numerical results of all three models show that they compare favorably to the conventional models.

Multitemporal SAR images have been used successfully for the detection of different types of environmental changes. The detection of urban change using SAR images is complicated due to the special characteristics of SAR images—for example, the existence of speckle and the complex mixture of the urban environment. This thesis investigates the detection of urban changes using SAR images with the following specific objectives: (1) to investigate unsupervised change detection, (2) to investigate reduction of the speckle effect and (3) to investigate spatio-contextual change detection. Beijing and Shanghai, the largest cities in China, were selected as study areas. Multitemporal SAR images acquired by ERS-2 SAR (1998~1999) and Envisat ASAR (2008~2009) sensors were used to detect changes that have occurred in these cities. Unsupervised change detection using SAR images is investigated using the Kittler-Illingworth algorithm. The problem associated with the diversity of urban changes—namely, more than one typology of change—is addressed using the modified ratio operator. This operator clusters both positive and negative changes on one side of the change-image histogram. To model the statistics of the changed and the unchanged classes, four different probability density functions were tested. The analysis indicates that the quality of the resulting change map will strongly depends on the density model chosen. The analysis also suggests that use of a local adaptive filter (e.g., enhanced Lee) removes fine geometric details from the scene. Speckle suppression and geometric detail preservation in SAR-based change detection, are addressed using the nonlocal means (NLM) algorithm. In this algorithm, denoising is achieved through a weighted averaging process, in which the weights are a function of the similarity of small image patches defined around each pixel in the image. To decrease the computational complexity, the PCA technique is used to reduce the dimensionality of the neighbourhood feature vectors. Simple methods to estimate the dimensionality of the new space and the required noise variance are proposed. The experimental results show that the NLM algorithm outperformed traditional local adaptive filters (e.g., enhanced Lee) in eliminating the effect of speckle and in maintaining the geometric structures in the scene. The analysis also indicates that filtering the change variable instead of the individual SAR images is effective in terms of both the quality of the results and the time needed to carry out the computation. The third research focuses on the application of Markov random field (MRF) in change detection using SAR images. The MRF-based change detection algorithm shows limited capacity to simultaneously maintain fine geometric detail in urban areas and combat the effect of speckle noise. This problem has been addressed through the introduction of a global constraint on the pixels’ class labels. Based on NLM theory, a global probability model is developed. The iterated conditional mode (ICM) scheme for the optimization of the MAP-MRF criterion function is extended to include a step that forces the maximization of the global probability model. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithm is better at preserving the fine structural detail, effective in reducing the effect of speckle, less sensitive to the value of the contextual parameter, and less affected by the quality of the initial change map compared with traditional MRF-based change detection algorithm. / <p>QC 20130610</p>