Monitoring of a regional stormwater management facility, located on the Virginia Tech campus in Blacksburg VA, was conducted in order to assess its efficacy in reducing nonpoint source pollutant losses downstream. The facility design includes both an upper water quality (wet) pond and a lower 100-yr-event quantity (dry) pond. These on-stream ponds capture both baseflow and storm runoff from the southern portion of the Virginia Tech campus and surrounding lands, and release the water back to the unnamed stream shortly above its conjunction with Stroubles Creek, a tributary of the New River. Monitoring sites for flow measurement, water quality sampling, and biotic assessments (habitat evaluation and rapid bioassessment of benthic macroinvertebrates) were located above and below each of the ponds. Both grab samples and automated samples were collected at these stations. Between 1997 and 1999, water quality grab samples included 35 baseflow samples and 22 stormflow samples. The grab samples were analyzed for concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS), metals, bacteria, and nutrients as well as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, total organic carbon (TOC), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Automated flow-weighted sampling was initiated in February of 1999 and results are reported through the end of October 1999. Thirty-three storms in 1999 were monitored for flow and various water quality parameters (TSS, TOC, COD, and nutrients). Pollutant loads and pollutant removal estimates were calculated with regard to the wet pond, dry pond, and the combined facility. Two types of pollutant removal efficiencies were calculated: (1) the EMC efficiency, based on pollutant concentrations from individual storms; and (2) the SOL efficiency, based on pollutant loads, to estimate long-term performance over the study period. Benthic macroinvertebrate sampling and habitat assessment were performed in both 1997 and 1999. In addition, a preliminary investigation of pond characteristics was conducted, including measurements of water quality and composition, sediment deposition and composition, and residence time. As a system, the stormwater management facility appears to have minimum impact on improving the downstream water quality. Pollutant concentrations and loads both appear to increase downstream of the facility as compared to upstream, during both storm event and baseflow periods. Monitoring results of the benthic assemblages showed evidence of moderate to high impairment at all sampling locations, and habitat assessments showed evidence of high sedimentation levels within the stream, even after installation of the stormwater management facility. Total suspended solids (TSS) concentration removal efficiency was 10% for the combined wet pond and dry pond system, much lower than the 80 to 90% TSS removal expected for properly functioning stormwater management facilities (Hartigan, 1989). There is some evidence of sedimentation within the ponds because of a slight reduction in sediment-bound constituent export, but the dissolved nutrient constituents had either very low and most often negative (indicating pollutant export) removal efficiencies. Concentrations of metals measured in the stream often exceeded their respective acute and chronic water quality criteria at all sampling locations. Pollutant removal efficiencies measured in the wet pond are atypical of those reported in the literature (Schueler, 1993). Insufficient residence time (two days compared to the optimal two weeks), and wet pond embankment failure are likely the principal causes of the wet pond's inadequate performance and thus, the inadequate performance of the overall facility. TSS removal efficiencies were low in the wet pond (19% for concentrations and 33% for loads) compared to the 80 to 90% expected for similar ponds. Nevertheless, the wet pond reduced the concentrations of several pollutants typically associated with TSS and not likely to be associated with the fill material for the wet pond embankment. Zinc concentrations in sediment cores were highest near the pond inlet, where the majority of sedimentation occurs. During storm events, the following results were noted. Copper and zinc concentrations in 1998 were lower at the pond outlet as compared to the pond inlet, and TOC concentrations and loads were also reduced by the wet pond (13% for concentrations and 12% for loads). However, sedimentation is also expected to remove phosphorusl, and wet pond phosphorus loads were only reduced by 10% and 3% for orthophosphorus and total phosphorus, respectively. Because the wet pond is undersized with respect to the watershed it serves (surface area less than 1% of the watershed area (0.87 ha), as compared to the 3% ratio often recommended for optimal pollutant removal (Athanas, 1988)), higher removal efficiencies were found during baseflow periods. The greatest reductions in baseflow concentrations were for ammonia (67%), nitrate (57%), total nitrogen (54%), and COD (45%). However, the residence time of two days appears to be insufficient to reduce fecal coliform concentrations in the stream, and over 40% of the fecal coliform samples collected exceeded the water quality standard for contact recreation (DEQ-WQS, 1997). Furthermore, the wet pond did not appear to reduce TSS or TOC during baseflow periods. Export of TSS (-29% EMC efficiency) and TOC (-44% EMC efficiency) from the wet pond during baseflow periods is likely due to the wet pond embankment failure as well as pond eutrophication. Eutrophication processes are favored by the water temperature increase as flow passes through the shallow wet pond. The wet pond increased downstream temperatures by approximately 8°C above inflow temperatures during the summer, and to levels above 21°C which cannot be tolerated by sensitive coldwater species (Schueler, 1987). The dry pond did not remove dissolved nutrient constituents or other pollutants during baseflow periods, but there is some evidence of sedimentation within the dry pond during storm events. During storm events, the dry pond was effective in removing TSS, with a concentration removal efficiency of 69% (EMC efficiency) and loading removal efficiency of 43% (SOL Efficiency). Removal of TKN and total phosphorus (36% and 37% respectively for concentrations) within the dry pond is further evidence of sedimentation within the dry pond. The wet pond embankment was built in 1997, and monitoring occurred during a potential stabilization period when evidence of water quality benefits are slow to appear, especially with respect to downstream habitat and aquatic communities. Some benefits which could have been observed more immediately may have been negated or masked by the progressive erosion of the wet pond embankment as a result of a design flaw. Further complicating the results is the appearance; based on observations of extended drawdown time and results from a water budget analysis in the wet pond (where inflow substantially exceeds inflow); that groundwater interacts with the pond in a complicated fashion, possibly including both recharge and discharge. To fully understand the impact of the stormwater management facility on the water quantity and quality within this tributary of Stroubles Creek, monitoring efforts should continue after the wet pond embankment is repaired and is fully operational. If biotic community improvement is desired, the stabilization period could be defined by the time necessary to flush out accumulated sediment within the channel. Monitoring efforts should also expand to include the investigation of the groundwater regime and water level fluctuations within the wet pond. Further measurements of pollutant removal processes and influences upon those processes within the wet pond should also be considered. Last, the influence of the stormwater management facility on downstream flow regimes should be investigated to assess the adequacy of its performance with regard to flow control and prevention of stream channel degradation. / Master of Science

ABSTRACT PHYSIO-CHEMICAL EVALUATION AND FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF NATIVE WETLAND SOILS AND ORGANIC AMENDMENTS FOR FRESHWATER MITIGATION WETLANDS MAY 2007 EMILY K.D. STOCKMAN, B.S., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST M.S., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Dr. Peter Veneman Due to the history of wetland loss within the United States a National “No Net Loss” policy was adopted in 1988. This policy requires the creation of mitigation wetlands to replace lost and/or damaged natural wetlands. The role of soil in natural wetland systems is key in providing a number of ecology functions, such as the supply of wetland plant nutrients and the retention of nonpoint source pollutants. Nonetheless, Federal and Massachusetts guidelines regarding the creation of soil and the utilization of organic amendments in mitigation wetlands lack specific parameters and thresholds. This research compares the chemical and physical properties of two commercially available composts and two natural wetland soils and evaluates these materials as possible pollutant sources and sinks. The results of the characterization study demonstrate significant differences between the compost samples and the wetland soils in regards to the following properties: organic matter content, pH, polarity, total nutrients (P, K, B, Zn, Fe, Al, Cd, Ni, Cr) and extractable nutrients (P, K, Ca, B, Mn). These physio-chemical properties influence the functions of supplying plant nutrients and retaining nonpoint source pollutants such as excessive nutrients and herbicides. The results of the nutrient release studies indicate that the compost samples behave as potential sources of excessive levels of phosphorus and nitrate. In addition, the pollutant retention studies concluded that the compost samples sorbed lower amounts of phosphorus under aerobic conditions and lower amounts of the commonly-used herbicide, 2,4-D, as compared to the wetland soils. Overall, the differences in both physio-chemical properties and the behavior of the composts as compared with the wetlands soils as well as each other, substantiate the necessity to re-evaluate Federal and Massachusetts guidelines pertaining to mitigation wetland soil and amendments. Based on the results of this study the following minimal analyses are recommended: organic matter content, pH, total nutrients and extractable nutrients. In addition, based on the phosphorus release and retention studies the following thresholds are recommended to prohibit the release of excessive levels of phosphorus into the mitigation wetland and adjacent aquatic systems: Morgan’s extractable P content ≤ 25 mg kg-1 and/or the total P content ≤ 1286 mg kg-1.

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A comprehensive, distributed parameter, annual, watershed nonpoint source management system (WATNPS) was developed for land management planning. WATNPS simulates annual sediment, nitrogen (chemical and livestock organic), and phosphorus (chemical and livestock organic) yields from nonpoint sources. The system is linked to a GIS platform to reduce the input required by personnel during analysis. WATNPS predicts potential impacts of land management practices on surface water quality. Data were compiled for the Middle Fork Holston River (MFHR) drainage basin, Owl Run and Nomini Creek watersheds in Virginia. WATNPS utilizes annual screening models for the prediction of pollutant yields. Overland delivery ratio, phosphorus yield, and animal waste models were modified for use in the system. In-stream delivery ratio, and pollutant routing procedures were developed as a part of the overall system functionality. Development and calibration of individual in-stream delivery ratio parameters was performed based on single year data from Nomini Creek and Owl Run. A procedure was developed to rank individual watersheds and sites based on predicted pollutant yields during screening. Simulation results and individual watershed characteristics were used during the development of a drainage quality index (DQI). The DQI was developed using statistical analysis to link a water quality indicator to predicted yields and watershed characteristics. The DQI was developed to assess the impact of management within individual watersheds and among watersheds within a drainage basin. WATNPS was validated using observed data. During simulations WATNPS predicted sediment yields within 50% of observed values. Nutrient yields were predicted within a order of magnitude. Simulation of alternative livestock management practices in Owl Run reflected the same trends identified in the observed data. The Hutton Creek simulation was also consistent with water quality observations. A watershed ranking based on the DQI assessment was compared to one provided by local personnel to compare predicted trends to observed watershed conditions. A demonstration of WATNPS selected a single watershed based on watershed rankings. Critical sites were identified during WATNPS site assessment and BMPs were developed. Following BMP implementation the watershed was simulated to determine the impact on sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus yields. / Ph. D.

Field research was conducted to investigate the impact of vegetative filter strips (VFSs) on surface runoff water quality and to determine if this impact decreases with time. The field research provided information for the development and testing of a model to describe the dynamics and fate of nitrogen (N) in VFSs. The experiment had a completely randomized design, with 3 treatments and 2 replicates per treatment. The treatments were 3 VFS lengths: 0, 4.27, and 8.5 m VFSs. The distribution free Kruskal-Wallis test indicated that the runoff, TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and TKN yields and concentrations from the 8.5 m VFSs were significantly less (α = 0.05) than the influent values. The TSS and NH₄⁺-N yields and concentrations and the TKN concentration from the 4.27 m VFSs were significantly less than the influent yields and concentrations. The Mann-Kendall test indicated that the yields of TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and TKN from the filters did not significantly increase from 1992 to 1993 and neither did the FTKN yield nor the FTKN concentration from the beginning to the end of 1993. The mean percentage reductions in influent runoff, TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N,, and TKN yields from the 8.5 m filters were 73, 91, 79, 86, and 83%, respectively. The mean percentage reductions in influent TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and TKN concentrations from the 8.5 m filters were 88, 50, 66, and 75%. The mean percentage reductions in influent runoff, TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and TKN yields from the 4.27 m filters were 43, 83, 55, 40, and 56%, respectively. The mean percentage reductions in influent TSS, NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and TKN concentrations from the 4.27 m filters were 81, 45, 26, and 41%. Based on the information gathered from the experiment results and the literature, a continuous, long-term, field scale model (Grass Filter Strip Model, GFSM) was developed to describe N transport and dynamics in VFSs. The model was based on GRAPH (GRAssed-strip-PHosphorus), a field scale, event-based model that describes sediment and P transport in runoff. The model simulates sediment, nitrate, sediment-bound and dissolved ammonium, and sediment-bound organic N transport during a runoff event. The model simulates the daily percolation and evapotranspiration and dynamics of nitrate, sediment-bound and dissolved ammonium, and sediment-bound organic N in the filter between runoff events. The model predicts the amount of N and sediment exiting the VFSs, and it can be used to estimate the site specific effectiveness and length of VFSs. The model can also be run for an event to assess the effectiveness of VFSs in reducing nonpoint source pollution loading from a single design storm. The model was validated using runoff, sediment, NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺ yield field data gathered from April to December, 1993. The model predicted reasonably well (within a factor of 2) the cumulative runoff volume and the yields of TSS. NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺. The model was most sensitive to the runoff rate, depth of the EDI, soil water storage depth, field capacity, and the steady-state infiltration rates. The model was used to determine the minimum length of VFS required for a 1.3 ha field in Georgia to achieve 75% and 40% sediment and nutrient reductions, respectively, over a 10-year period. The model results indicated that a buffer length of 6.3 m was sufficient to reduce sediment and nitrogen losses by the specified percentages. / Ph. D.

The passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 required states to develop forestry BMPs to help reduce potential nonpoint source pollution from forest operations. Properly applied forestry best management practices (BMPs) have since been proven to protect water quality from forest operations. This research project reviewed BMP effectiveness studies in the U.S., assessed current state developed and implemented of forestry BMPs, and developed a simple method to estimate potential erosion from forest operations for the Piedmont physiographic region based on previous studies. Eighty-one BMP effectiveness studies were reviewed. The review of past effectiveness studies indicates that water quality protection is increased when BMPs are implemented correctly. These effectiveness studies provide states with valuable information on how their BMP guidelines are achieving the goals defined by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Every U.S. state has forestry BMP guidelines. These guidelines may be non-regulatory, quasi-regulatory, or regulatory depending on the state. Twenty states reported implementing non-regulatory BMP guidelines, 19 quasi-regulatory BMP guidelines, and 11 regulatory BMP guidelines. State forestry agencies were reported as being the lead agency responsible for BMP monitoring in 35 states. The national forestry BMP implementation rate was 91% (32 states). However, states did report deficiencies for specific BMP guideline categories. Supplementary to the reviewed BMP effectiveness studies, forest erosion studies in the southeastern U.S. that quantified erosion rates from forest operations were also reviewed. Erosion rates obtained from the literature were reviewed by operation categories (timber harvesting, forest roads, skid trails, log landings, stream crossings, and streamside management zones) and physiographic region (Mountains, Piedmont, Gulf Coastal Plain, and Atlantic Coastal Plain). There were numerous research gaps regarding erosion rates from forest operations for all the regions except the Piedmont region. The Piedmont region was selected for developing a method to estimate potential erosion from forest operations. This erosion estimation method is a quick and potentially useful tool for estimating potential erosion; however, it is based on limited data from the Piedmont region only. The basic method approach might be considered for the other physiographic regions, but further research is needed to fill current knowledge gaps. / Ph. D.