<p>The Morokweng impact structure which is located in the North West province of South Africa, has attracted attention as a potential host for Ni-PGE mineralization. Geochemical exploration techniques using hydroxylamine partial extraction were used to determine the nature and source of surface geochemical anomalies known to occur in the overlying aeolian sang regolith. About 40 aeolian samples were taken from an area of about 35 square kilometer, located in the north eastern sector of the Morokweng impact structure. The samples were sieved to various grain size fractions and partially extracted using varying concentration of hydroxylamine hydrochloride at 50&deg / C.</p>

The American Defense Institute for Medical Operations (DIMO) states that deaths associated with disasters have increased by 50 percent each decade and as Alexander (2002) notes, although disasters require special organization, coordination and resources, they are not exceptional events. Disasters tend to be repetitive; often re-occurring in the same places and as such, are sufficiently frequent and predictable enough to plan for. Disasters are occurring more frequently due to industrialization and rapid development, and as the world’s population has grown, large numbers of people are “vulnerable”; living in less desirable, less ‘safe’ areas. “Natural” disasters hit developing countries perhaps harder, where more people are vulnerable, infrastructure is lacking to begin with and resources are already stretched. Many countries including South Africa are challenged by the increasing number of natural disasters and how to protect the most vulnerable who are without basic infrastructure and largely without access to media. Thus effective public health communication and promotion has become of critical importance particularly in high risk communities and is possible since disasters often occur in the same places. Purpose Literature exists on the efficacy of using media channels to reach people with critical public health messages during disasters, but no studies have focused specifically on other means of communicating public health messages during disasters in places where media doesn’t reach or people can’t justify the cost of batteries for their radios. No research has been done to determine if the people affected recall life saving lessons imparted during disasters; why or why not. Similarly, there is little in the way of documentation detailing the following during past disasters that have occurred both on the African continent and worldwide: who communicated public health messages; what messages were communicated and how messages were imparted. Media – specifically radio and television are used in developed countries to communicate warnings and evacuation messages for example. At best there are reports from the different NGO’s that operate in communities affected by a disaster or NGO’s that arrived to provide humanitarian assistance. It can be surmised that communication is done by those that take the JENNIFER HESLOP/ Student ID No. 0516028Y 6 initiative using whatever channels exist; this may likely include the affected country’s own resources, NGO’s and responders. Coordination to prevent duplicating messages or groups operating in the same areas has in the past been lacking. As such, there is a need to look critically at vulnerable places and people, the value of the information imparted during disasters, why messages may or may not be heeded and if communities would apply the information in future without outside assistance. The study looks at a community that was affected by a specific disaster in South Africa; what proportion of the sample learned life-saving information for the first time during the disaster and whether they would recall these life-saving mechanisms, unaided, in similar future scenarios. Another objective was to determine if gender, age, education or employment status was of any significance against the portion of the study population that learned the information for the first time during the floods. The research leads one to question whether messages are in context with people’s realities and what would prevent them from applying the principles imparted. Broader questions arose, like, do disasters provide an opportunity for learning where there was no learning yet established; and is there an opportunity for engagement between “outsiders” (those with expertise) and “insiders” (affected community) that is truly beneficial to those in need of the information – beneficial in the sense that the information could be applied in future without outside assistance? Design/ methodology The research included two key groups of people: those responsible for the decision making around the communication and public health response to the disaster, and the affected communities. The research design included qualitative key informant interviews accessed through snowballing technique and quantitative face-to-face interviews with 100 community members. The qualitative study was a descriptive, semi-structure interview outline designed to provide a framework to describe the situation, the health risks, priorities, health promotion messages that were communicated and how they were communicated. Key informants were made up of members of the disaster response team as well as others that played a role during the floods. The interviews were transcribed; reoccurring themes were identified and distilled to get the three most critical public health messages that were communicated during the floods. The recurring themes formed the basis of the quantitative questionnaire. JENNIFER HESLOP/ Student ID No. 0516028Y 7 The quantitative study, a cross sectional descriptive study, relied on one hundred community members living in the broader Qho area during the floods and provided they met the criteria (they lived in the area during the floods and could recall what happened), they were asked for their consent before the interview commenced. The data were captured and analysed using Epi Info 6, frequencies were run to describe the sample, and then cross tabulations were performed, looking for associations between the outcome variables and demographic and media variables; chi square tests were performed to test for significance. The three most critical public health messages were: water purification, oral re-hydration therapy for diarrhea and warnings not to eat an animal that had died of unknown causes during the floods. Findings The findings of the research indicate that across two public health messages more than half of all respondents learned the information that may have saved their lives for the first time during the floods. Forty-eight percent learned how to purify water for the first time during the floods; 54.2 percent learned about oral re-hydration therapy during the floods; and 55.6 percent learned not to eat an animal that has died of unknown causes during the floods. Determining whether the sample population would apply the same lessons learned, unaided, in future similar circumstances, is harder to prove since it is self-reported. Nearly 100 percent across the three questions said categorically that they would and most could name ways to purify water, stop diarrhea and said that they knew not to eat an animal that has died of unknown causes. One hundred percent of responders said they would know what to do to make dirty water clean and some cited ways they would do this by boiling and/ or the use of ‘Jik’ (brand of bleach; in South Africa, the word ‘Jik’ has become synonymous with ‘bleach’). Ninety percent of the sample said they would use “the salt and sugar mixture in water” to treat diarrhea and 90 percent knew they should not eat an animal that has died of unknown causes. It is perhaps of interest to note that significantly more men learned during the flood to use OTR for diarrhea than women. Thus disasters may likely provide an opportunity for men to learn health practices that normally women would be more likely to have learned. There was also a significant difference between those that learned about ORT during the floods and those that learned before the floods by level of education, with 63 percent of those that learned about ORT before the floods, having completed primary school. Also of interest was the fact that while only 15 percent of the total sample population has access to television, of the 55.6 percent that learned not to eat an animal that has died of an unknown cause during the floods, 24.5 percent had access to television, and 86 percent of those with access to TV learned about this during the flood. Practical implications Disasters provide opportunities to fast-track development and public health goals. However, based on the research, for communication to have the desired response, communities and public health experts should be involved in dialogue with broader stakeholders before, during and after disasters. It is important to include “locals” (experts from the broader community) and community healthcare workers on an on-going basis, in public health promotion and preparedness strategies and to involve men in the community; a group that has largely been absent in communities and not historically involved in family health care. When a disaster is declared, an injection of resources – human, physical and financial assists significantly in making things happen, from providing and / or upgrading infrastructure to getting critical information and resources to affected populations. Just as critical is education – teaching people how to respond and why, as opposed to just telling people. Knowledge is more sustainable than physical resources, although both are often required. People need to truly understand the information in their own contexts, as well as the “why’ and “how” if they are going to be able to replicate the lessons unaided in future. Concurrently, affected people are more open to information and changing behaviours that may now seem foolish or outdated. Electronic media channels cannot be relied upon as the sole means of communication but need to be incorporated despite low penetration, due to the powerful effect the mediums have in stimulating word-of-mouth transmission of messages, particularly messages that may lead to social discomfort. Alternative means of communication like face-to-face dialogue and use of cell phone messaging, and understanding how communication must be done to ensure effectiveness is imperative - and these guidelines are applicable across cultural, political and socio-economic JENNIFER HESLOP/ Student ID No. 0516028Y 9 boundaries. It is imperative that those providing assistance understand the affected population and their realities as if they were his or her own. This includes local resources like media; literacy levels; beliefs and values; as well as who is trusted by the community.

M.P.H., Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 2010 / Introduction No health care services are available for staff or students on the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. Lack of finances and the notion that the health of the campus community is not the core business of a university are reasons for not providing some form of health care service. The Declaration of Alma-Ata was adopted internationally, stating that essential health care must be made universally accessible to all people. South Africa endorses the Declaration of Alma-Ata and commits itself to ensure equitable access to health care. A needs analysis of the Higher Education AIDS Programme (HEAIDS) demonstrated that most South African universities, within reasonable means, respond to their students' health needs by providing some form of primary health care service. The researcher is adopting an ecological approach using the Healthy Campus Model. The model is based on primary health care principles and values which refer to the health needs of people as this would assist in alleviating the burden of disease and the risks thereof. The Healthy Campus Model also explores equal access and utilization of quality health care whereby these principles of primary health care and community participation would guide such a service. This approach determines whether basic human rights of access to health care have been met. Materials and Methods In this study the research design was a cross-sectional descriptive survey. The survey is part of a comprehensive health needs assessment, using a mainly quantitative questionnaire as a data collection tool. The study population consisted of full-time students enrolled at the Potchefstroom Campus. It included subgroups on gender, seniority and place of residence and was chosen specifically to identify possible high-risk activities and influences on student health. A sample size of 370 students and confidence interval of 95% were calculated. Both purposive and a volunteer sampling were used. iii Results The most significant finding is the students' need for an affordable and accessible health care facility with a high level of client confidentiality and quality of service. The survey included data of the financial needs of students regarding their primary source of financial assistance as an indication of their financial wealth. Access to finances specifically allocated for health care shows that almost half of the target population (47,54%) do not have the surety of access to a source of finance to cover their medical expenses. However, the majority (74,32%) are willing to contribute towards cost-effective and affordable health care and do not expect free health care. Accessible health care services are also of major concern. The majority of students (68,38%) stay on or within walking distance from campus. The results indicated furthermore that students’ have specific health needs and preferences. The highest priority of health care were given to acute care or minor ailments (79,5%) followed by counselling care (70,6%). A need for HIV and Aids clinical programmes (69,8%) and health awareness and prevention programmes (67,6%) was indicated. The majority (83,74%) indicated that the services of the proposed health care centre will be preferred and utilized if available and affordable. Discussion The results of the health needs analysis on the Potchefstroom Campus clearly indicate that the students have definite needs for such services. The researcher argues that the institution is at risk by NOT responding to the students’ health needs. Absence of a health care service attributes to the inauspicious health environment of the campus. By supporting the ecological approach, the researcher concurs that a healthy environment has the greatest impact on good health and that health and educational success are interdependent. Conclusion and Recommendation Educational success is a strategic priority and the core business of all institutions of learning. Establishing a primary health care service and acting on the health needs of the students is a risk abatement strategy to surmise educational success. A follow-up survey to determine the top ten health impediments on campus is recommended to measure and manage academic and health-related successes.

Adherence to prescribed medications is a central feature of good clinical HIV care and a key factor in determining the effectiveness of treatment. This is especially true for HIV-infected patients, on antiretroviral treatment, where adherence is strongly associated with survival. HIV-associated tuberculosis is a major and increasing health problem, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Clinical trials have demonstrated a benefit of isoniazid preventive therapy in preventing TB among HIV-infected persons, and its use among these patients is recommended. Nearly perfect compliance seems to be indispensable to obtain the maximum benefit from highly active antiretroviral treatment and prophylactic medications. Accurately assessing non-adherence is a necessary first step towards improving adherence to active antiretroviral treatment and isoniazid preventive therapy. The introduction of diary cards is being considered as a measure of adherence and as a tool to improve adherence among HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral treatment or isoniazid preventive therapy. This was a preliminary study to evaluate the effectiveness of diary cards as intervention tool for promoting adherence to antiretroviral and prophylactic TB therapy in people living with HIV/AIDS, to evaluate the diary card as a tool to measure adherence and to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of diary cards.

Safe drinking water is a basic human right. This study mainly focused on the physicochemical and microbiological drinking water quality of selected rural, peri-urban and urban communities and schools in the North West Province, South Africa. Parameters measured to determine the physico-chemical quality of drinking water were temperature, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electric conductivity, carbonate hardness, total hardness, NO2 -, NO3 - and chlorine. These parameters indicated hard water in the informal settlement (Sonderwater) as well as in the rural area (Ganyesa). Nitrate content were troubling for both areas, and total dissolved solids were higher than the standard in the water from Ganyesa. For microbiological quality of the water, heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, and staphylococci were enumerated on appropriate selective media using standard procedures. In the water from Sonderwater, faecal indicator bacteria were isolated, but none were found in the water from Ganyesa. Heterotrophic plate count bacteria and total coliforms were detected at levels above the standard in water samples from both areas. Staphylococci and faecal streptococci were present in low numbers in the water from both sites. Faecal coliforms isolated from Sonderwater showed multiple antibiotic resistances to beta-lactams. Identification of faecal coliforms from Sonderwater by API 20E strips and sequencing showed that they were Aeromonas spp. and Enterobacter spp.. Bacteria in the water from Sonderwater were tested for the potential to form biofilms. Scanning electron microscopy revealed multi-species biofilms developing in the water container after 5 days of storage. Water was sampled from four areas outside of Potchefstroom to determine a settlement gradient in water quality. Areas ranged from a formal area, through an established informal area and a newly established informal area to the newest established informal area. The water from these areas was classified as hard according to physico-chemical parameters measured, and TDS for the water from all areas were above the standard for domestic use. The established informal area had high numbers of total coliforms present in the water. Staphylococci and HPC bacteria were detected in levels higher than the standard for domestic use in all water samples. No faecal coliforms were found in the water from any of the areas. There was no visible gradient in the water quality between the areas. The water samples collected from rural, peri-urban and urban schools were also analysed in terms of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. Water from all schools was classified as hard water. Only one school (peri-urban) had a pH above the standard. One rural school and one peri-urban school had TDS and electrical conductivity levels above the standard for domestic use. All rural and peri-urban schools had alarmingly high levels of nitrates present in the water. These schools receive groundwater as drinking water. Total coliform bacteria were present at high levels in all water samples from the schools. Rural and peri-urban schools presented levels of staphylococci and HPC bacteria higher than the standard for domestic use. Streptococci were present in water from some of the rural and peri-urban schools and one urban school. Faecal coliform/faecal streptococci ratios for rural schools indicated faecal pollution potentially of human origin, and in other schools faecal pollution from both human and animal origin. Before the vacation, faecal coliform bacteria were detected in water from all rural schools, two peri-urban schools and one urban school. After the vacation, faecal coliforms were only detected in water from two rural schools and one peri-urban school. Faecal coliforms identified and characterized showed multiple antibiotic resistances to beta-lactams, oxy-tetracycline and trimethoprim. Identification by API 20E strips and sequencing confirmed that faecal coliforms from schools were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. It was concluded that water from Sonderwater were of poor quality and water from Ganyesa were acceptable with only the nitrates a troubling factor. There was no settlement gradient observed in terms of water quality between areas. Water from rural schools were generally of unacceptable quality in terms of both physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. The water quality of these schools was also very poor when compared to urban schools. Periurban schools had water quality better than rural schools, but poorer than urban schools. Surveys of water quality are recommended for all areas sampled, and education on the sanitary quality of water and related health implications is advisable for residents of informal and rural areas. / Thesis: B.Sc. Microbiology and Biochemistry School of Environmental Science and Development Faculty of Natural Sciences North-West University: Potchefstroom campus 2006.

Safe drinking water is a basic human right. This study mainly focused on the physicochemical and microbiological drinking water quality of selected rural, peri-urban and urban communities and schools in the North West Province, South Africa. Parameters measured to determine the physico-chemical quality of drinking water were temperature, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electric conductivity, carbonate hardness, total hardness, NO2 -, NO3 - and chlorine. These parameters indicated hard water in the informal settlement (Sonderwater) as well as in the rural area (Ganyesa). Nitrate content were troubling for both areas, and total dissolved solids were higher than the standard in the water from Ganyesa. For microbiological quality of the water, heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, and staphylococci were enumerated on appropriate selective media using standard procedures. In the water from Sonderwater, faecal indicator bacteria were isolated, but none were found in the water from Ganyesa. Heterotrophic plate count bacteria and total coliforms were detected at levels above the standard in water samples from both areas. Staphylococci and faecal streptococci were present in low numbers in the water from both sites. Faecal coliforms isolated from Sonderwater showed multiple antibiotic resistances to beta-lactams. Identification of faecal coliforms from Sonderwater by API 20E strips and sequencing showed that they were Aeromonas spp. and Enterobacter spp.. Bacteria in the water from Sonderwater were tested for the potential to form biofilms. Scanning electron microscopy revealed multi-species biofilms developing in the water container after 5 days of storage. Water was sampled from four areas outside of Potchefstroom to determine a settlement gradient in water quality. Areas ranged from a formal area, through an established informal area and a newly established informal area to the newest established informal area. The water from these areas was classified as hard according to physico-chemical parameters measured, and TDS for the water from all areas were above the standard for domestic use. The established informal area had high numbers of total coliforms present in the water. Staphylococci and HPC bacteria were detected in levels higher than the standard for domestic use in all water samples. No faecal coliforms were found in the water from any of the areas. There was no visible gradient in the water quality between the areas. The water samples collected from rural, peri-urban and urban schools were also analysed in terms of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. Water from all schools was classified as hard water. Only one school (peri-urban) had a pH above the standard. One rural school and one peri-urban school had TDS and electrical conductivity levels above the standard for domestic use. All rural and peri-urban schools had alarmingly high levels of nitrates present in the water. These schools receive groundwater as drinking water. Total coliform bacteria were present at high levels in all water samples from the schools. Rural and peri-urban schools presented levels of staphylococci and HPC bacteria higher than the standard for domestic use. Streptococci were present in water from some of the rural and peri-urban schools and one urban school. Faecal coliform/faecal streptococci ratios for rural schools indicated faecal pollution potentially of human origin, and in other schools faecal pollution from both human and animal origin. Before the vacation, faecal coliform bacteria were detected in water from all rural schools, two peri-urban schools and one urban school. After the vacation, faecal coliforms were only detected in water from two rural schools and one peri-urban school. Faecal coliforms identified and characterized showed multiple antibiotic resistances to beta-lactams, oxy-tetracycline and trimethoprim. Identification by API 20E strips and sequencing confirmed that faecal coliforms from schools were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. It was concluded that water from Sonderwater were of poor quality and water from Ganyesa were acceptable with only the nitrates a troubling factor. There was no settlement gradient observed in terms of water quality between areas. Water from rural schools were generally of unacceptable quality in terms of both physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. The water quality of these schools was also very poor when compared to urban schools. Periurban schools had water quality better than rural schools, but poorer than urban schools. Surveys of water quality are recommended for all areas sampled, and education on the sanitary quality of water and related health implications is advisable for residents of informal and rural areas. / Thesis: B.Sc. Microbiology and Biochemistry School of Environmental Science and Development Faculty of Natural Sciences North-West University: Potchefstroom campus 2006.

Adherence to prescribed medications is a central feature of good clinical HIV care and a key factor in determining the effectiveness of treatment. This is especially true for HIV-infected patients, on antiretroviral treatment, where adherence is strongly associated with survival. HIV-associated tuberculosis is a major and increasing health problem, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Clinical trials have demonstrated a benefit of isoniazid preventive therapy in preventing TB among HIV-infected persons, and its use among these patients is recommended. Nearly perfect compliance seems to be indispensable to obtain the maximum benefit from highly active antiretroviral treatment and prophylactic medications. Accurately assessing non-adherence is a necessary first step towards improving adherence to active antiretroviral treatment and isoniazid preventive therapy. The introduction of diary cards is being considered as a measure of adherence and as a tool to improve adherence among HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral treatment or isoniazid preventive therapy. This was a preliminary study to evaluate the effectiveness of diary cards as intervention tool for promoting adherence to antiretroviral and prophylactic TB therapy in people living with HIV/AIDS, to evaluate the diary card as a tool to measure adherence and to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of diary cards.

D.Ed. (Educational Psychology) / Too many students worldwide, also in South Africa, underachieve scholastically. This state of affairs (high scholastic underachievement) in many schools, particularly in Black rural schools in South Africa, is a matter of grave concern amongst educators. These scholastic underachievers do not realise their potential, do not acquire skills for any decent job, are jobless, fiustrated, make no meaningful contribution to society, render the state's effort of having financed (subsidised) their education meaningless and uneconomical and are viewed as failures as human beings and of society as such. To address this problem, it is extremely germane for specialists and the community to join hands, pool knowledge, expertise and experience in order to investigate the causes of scholastic underachievement and what precautionary measures can be taken to curb scholastic underachievement. Every effort must be made to understand the causes of scholastic underachievement in order to develop prevention strategies to counteract this phenomenon. The aim of this study is to explore the phenomenon of scholastic underachievement within the context of rural Black South Africa and, based on the results of the study, to develop a prevention strategy to be used for scholastic underachievers in rural Black South Africa which would meet both the internal and external needs of the scholastic underachiever. In this research an exploratory and descriptive, qualitative approach which is a generative design is mainly used and is based on the model of theory generation of Chinn & Kramer (1991). The aim of this approach is to develop new insight into these phenomena and to increase understanding. Through focus group interviews, the researcher has been able to explore and describe the viewpoints of principals of schools, parents of scholastic underachievers and fellow learners of scholastic underachievers appertaining to what causes scholastic underachievement and what precautionary measures could be taken to curb and counteract scholastic underachievement.

The study uses the conventional economic approaches to savings behaviour as a point of departure. In the past, agricultural programmes and policies overlooked the importance of savings mobilization in favour of credit extension programmes. This line of economic development approach arose from the assumption that poor rural people cannot save and will not respond to opportunities to save. The latest research results clearly demonstrate that rural people do mobilise significant voluntary savings, even at their low levels of income. The thrust of the study was to research savings behaviour and motivation to save by resource poor farmers, with specific reference to farmers in Moretele District, Northwest Province. The study tested the hypothesis that poor people cannot save, and went further to analyse determinants of savings behaviour, motivations to save, sources of savings mobilization, savings accounts used and motivations to use a specific savings product. The application of the life cycle hypothesis was also analysed. Linear multiple regression, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) technique, analysis of variance (ANOV A), and factor analysis (FA) were used to analyse the data pertinent to the study. The findings of the study confirmed income as a major determinant of savings mobilization in the district. The extent of dependency, defined as the proportion of the population of a country falling in the age groups of 0-15 and 64 years and older, considered economically unproductive and therefore not counted as part of the country's labour force was found to have a negative effect on the ability of farmers to save. This is due to large family sizes and high levels of dependency in households. Age was also discovered to influence savings behaviour, but not in accordance with the application of the life cycle hypothesis. With regards to motivations to save, it was found that farmers in the district mainly save to cater for emergencies and for grandchildren's education, and not for accumulation/investment purposes. In addition to the abovementioned savings motives, farmers were however found to consider an investment imperative as reflected by an interaction between savings for accumulation and emergency purposes. The low investment imperative may change if other emergency management structures are considered. The main sources of savings mobilization for the farmers were income from livestock sales and government social security grant (government old age pension). These farmers were discovered to prefer ordinary savings plans. The rationale for this choice was found to be motivated by ease of quick access to savings and the liquidity provided by this savings product. The liquidity requirement is regarded as a strategy to address emergencies and any other financial need that might arise. The findings of the study calls for policy instruments that will expedite the implementation of outreach programmes and strategies for voluntary savings mobilization that will cater for investment imperative and emergency needs. Critical to this will be the development of savings products that respond to the various needs of resource poor farmers as well as to serve different categories of rural savers. The decentralization of savings institutions and linking of formal and informal financial institutions will enhance access to financial services by the rural population. Policies intended to discourage large families would help reduce the high rates of dependencies and relieve pressure on household income, which could be used for savings. / Dissertation (MSc (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / National community health worker (CHW) programmes are to an increasing extent being implemented in health systems globally, mirrored in South Africa in the ward-based outreach team (WBOT) strategy. In many countries, including South Africa, a major challenge impacting the performance and sustainability of scaled-up CHW programmes is ensuring adequate support from and supervision by the local health system. Supervisory systems, where they exist, are usually corrective and hierarchical in nature, and implementation remains poor. In the South African context, the absence of any guidance on CHW supportive supervision has led to varied practices across the country. Improved approaches to supportive supervision are considered critical for CHW programme performance. However, there is relatively little understanding of how this can be done sustainably at scale, and effective CHW supervisory models remain elusive. Research to date has mostly positioned supervision as a technical process rather than a set of relationships, with the former testing specific interventions rather than developing holistic approaches attuned to local contexts.