This thesis investigates the events leading up to and following the first North Korean nuclear test, which took place in 2006, in order to examine first, whether the test helped the North Korean regime survive, and second, how this unilateral action acted as a balance to the United States’ policy of oppression. The thesis will also attempt to shed some light on the validity of the Western International Relations (IR) theories by ascertaining the balance of threat and applying the notion of “two-level games” to the nuclear conundrum. Through the lens of these IR theories, the research described in the thesis addresses three smaller questions: (1) how did the nuclear test stabilize Pyongyang’s integrity as a balance to the threat of a potential American military attack?; (2) how was the test used as a bargaining mechanism to urge the Bush administration to shift away from its hostile stance and towards a policy of engagement?; and (3) how did the test influence the security environment of the Northeast Asian region? Finally, the thesis considers various reasons why the nuclear deadlock in which we currently find ourselves will not be resolved in the foreseeable future, and it suggests that resolution of the nuclear stalemate can only occur once comprehensive deal-making incentives between Washington and Pyongyang are adopted. / Graduate / 0615 / lomulos@yahoo.co.kr

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This thesis investigates the ability of transparent surface coatings to reduce xenon diffusion into plastic scintillators. The motivation for the work is improved radioxenon monitoring equipment, used with in the framework of the verification regime of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. A large part of the equipment used in this context incorporates plastic scintillators which are in direct contact with the radioactive gas to be detected. One problem with such setup is that radioxenon diffuses into the plastic scintillator material during the measurement, resulting in an unwanted memory effect consisting of residual activity left in the detector. In this work coatings of Al2O3 and SiO2, with thicknesses between 20 and 400 nm have been deposited onto flat plastic scintillator samples, and tested with respect to their Xe diffusion barrier capabilities. All tested coatings were found to reduce the memory effect, and 425 nm of Al2O3 showed the most promise. This coating was deposited onto a complete detector. Compared to uncoated detectors, the coated one presented a memory effect reduction of a factor of 1000. Simulations and measurements of the expected light collection efficiency of a coated detector were also performed, since it is important that this property is not degraded by the coating. It was shown that a smooth coating, with a similar refractive index as the one of the plastic, should not significantly affect the light collection and resolution. The resolution of the complete coated detector was also measured, showing a resolution comparable to uncoated detectors. The work conducted in this thesis proved that this coating approach is a viable solution to the memory effect problem, given that the results are reproducible, and that the quality of the coating is maintained over time.

This thesis investigates surface coatings as xenon diffusion barriers on plastic scintillators. The motivation for the work is improved radioxenon detection systems, used within the verification regime of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). One type of radioxenon detection systems used in this context is the Swedish SAUNA system. This system uses a cylindrical plastic scintillator cell to measure the beta decay from radioxenon isotopes. The detector cell also acts as a container for the xenon sample during the measurement. One problem with this setup is that part of the xenon sample diffuses into the plastic scintillator material during the measurement, resulting in residual activity left in the detector during subsequent measurements. This residual activity is here referred to as the memory effect. It is here proposed, and demonstrated, that it is possible to coat the plastic scintillator material with a transparent oxide coating, working as a xenon diffusion barrier. It is found that a 425 nm Al2O3 coating, deposited with Atomic Layer Deposition, reduces the memory effect by a factor of 1000, compared an uncoated detector. Furthermore, simulations show that the coating might also improve the light collection in the detector. Finally, the energy resolution of a coated detector is studied, and no degradation is observed. The focus of the thesis is measurements of the diffusion barrier properties of Al2O3 films of different thicknesses deposited on plastic scintillators, as well as an evaluation of the expected effect of a coating on the energy resolution of the detector. The latter is studied through light transport simulations. As a final step, a complete coated plastic scintillator cell is evaluated in terms of memory effect, efficiency and energy resolution. In addition, the xenon diffusion process in the plastic material is studied, and molecular dynamics simulations of the Xe-Al2O3 system are performed in order to investigate the reason for the need for a rather thick coating to significantly reduce the memory effect.

When a nuclear explosion occurs certain radionuclides are emitted, notably xenon. Due to the fact that xenon is a noble gas, it is hard to contain and can therefore be detected far from the explosion site. There are four isotopes of xenon that are of interest in the detection of a nuclear explosion: 131mXe, 133mXe, 133Xe and 135Xe. By constantly measuring the amount of these isotopes in the air, changes in the concentration in an indication that a nuclear explosion has occurred. In this thesis a detector was modelled in GEANT4 and focuses on one kind of noble gas detector: SAUNA - the Swedish Automatic Unit for Noble gas Acquisition. SAUNA uses the coincidence technique in order to determine the concentration of xenon there is in the air. By using the coincidence technique, it is possible to reduce the impact of the background radiation and therefore increase the efficiency of the detector. 133Xe has a coincidence when it first undergoes beta decay, with an endpoint energy of 346 keV, and then emits a 80 keV gamma particle. 135Xe has also a dual coincidence, a beta decay with an endpoint energy of 910 keV together with a 250 keV gamma-ray. However both these isotopes have a triple coincidence decay that also can be exploited: for 133Xe, a beta particle with endpoint energy of 346 keV, a 30 keV X-ray and a 45 keV conversion electron, while for 135Xe there is instead of the gamma particle a 30 keV X-ray and a 214keV conversion electron that can be emitted together with the beta particle. The 30 keV X-ray together with the beta particle for 133Xe can also be used as a dual coincidence, in that case the conversion electron is ignored. For 133Xe, when a beta particle, a 45 keV conversion electron, and a 30 keV X-ray are emitted, the model was able to detect all three particles in 69.2% ± 0.1 of the cases. However, when only the particles with a detected energy within a 5 keV interval of their generated energies are considered to be in coincidence, then for 133Xe triple coincidence occurs in 22.9% ± 0.2 of the cases. For 135Xe the model was able to detect the triple coincidence (between a beta, 214 keV CE and 30 keV X-ray) in 63.5% ± 0.1 of the cases. This work shows that adding another particle in a coincidence reduces the chance to detect the coincidence. The positive effect of adding another particle in a coincidence is that the minimum detectable concentration of xenon should be smaller. The goal for future detectors should be to make it possible for the detector to take advantage of the triple coincidences but at the same time be also able to use the dual coincidences.

Dans le cadre du Traité d'Interdiction Complète des Essais Nucléaires (TICE), le Système de Surveillance International (SSI) a été développé. Ce réseau consiste en plusieurs centaines de stations de mesures dont le rôle est de détecter la signature d'un essai nucléaire clandestin. Quatre types de mesures sont effectués: sismique, hydro-acoustique, infrason et radionucléide. Dans le cas particulier d'un essai nucléaire souterrain, seule la mesure des radionucléides est adéquate pour mettre en évidence le caractère nucléaire de l'explosion. Quatre radionucléides du xénon sont produits en masse lors d'un essai nucléaire: le 131m-Xe, le 133m-Xe, le 133-Xe, et le 135-Xe. Une faible proportion de ces gaz parvient à diffuser à travers les fissures de la cavité et se retrouver dans l'atmosphère. A cause de la dilution atmosphérique, les concentrations de ces quatre radionucléides sont extrêmement faibles et par conséquent difficiles à détecter. De plus, le bruit de fond atmosphérique ne cesse d'augmenter car ces gaz radioactifs sont également produits et relâchés par les usines de production de radio-isotopes médicaux et les centrales nucléaires. Afin de renforcer le réseau de surveillance, le CEA-DAM a proposé de développer un système de détection des radionucléides du xénon ultra-compact et mobile, afin de pouvoir effectuer des mesures de vérification directement sur site suspect, et ainsi contourner la contrainte de dilution atmosphérique. Ces travaux présentent le développement et l'optimisation de ce système. Le système a d'abord été modélisé sur ordinateur et ses performances en terme d'efficacité de détection ont été simulées par méthode de Monte-Carlo avec le logiciel Geant4. Les mesures se font en utilisant la technique de mesure en coïncidences électron/photon. En parallèle, une chaîne d'acquisition ultra-compacte a été développée, ainsi qu'un réseau de communication permettant de synchroniser en temps les différents spectromètres numériques utilisés pour le traitement du signal (protocole IEEE 1588 PTP). Les concentrations minimales détectables de ce système sont inférieures à 5 mBq/m³ pour une acquisition de 12 h, et ce pour les quatre radionucléides du xénon d'intérêt. / As part of the Comprehensive nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), an International Monitoring System (IMS) has been developed. This network consists of several hundred measuring stations whose role is to detect the signatures of a clandestine nuclear test. Four types of measurements are carried out: seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound and radionuclide. In the particular case of an underground nuclear test, only the radionuclide measurement is adequate to detect the explosion and quantify its yield. Four xenon radionuclides with long half-lives are produced during a nuclear test: the 131m-Xe, the 133m-Xe, the 133-Xe and the 135-Xe. A small proportion of these gases may diffuse through the cracks in the cavity and end up in the atmosphere. Due to atmospheric dilution, the concentrations of these four radionuclides are extremely low and therefore difficult to detect. In addition, atmospheric background continues to increase as these radioactive gases are also produced by medical radioisotope facilities and nuclear power plants. In order to strengthen the IMS, the CEA-DAM has proposed to develop an ultra-compact and mobile system for detecting xenon radionuclides, in order to be able to carry out verification measurements directly on site, and thus to avoid the problem of atmospheric dilution. This work presents the development and optimization of this system. The system was first modelled on a computer and its performances in terms of detection efficiency were simulated by the Monte-Carlo method using Geant4 software. Measurements are made in electron-photon coincidence mode. In parallel, an ultra-compact acquisition chain has been developed, as well as a communication network to synchronize in time the various digital spectrometers used for signal processing (IEEE 1588 PTP protocol). The minimum detectable concentrations of this system are less than 5 mBq/m³ for a 12 h acquisition, for the four xenon radionuclides of interest.

Underground nuclear explosions (UNEs) produce anthropogenic isotopes that provide the only definitive means by which to determine whether a nuclear explosion has taken place. Verification of a suspected test under the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) includes both on-site and atmospheric sampling of specific noble gas radioisotopes for analysis of origin. It is well-established that the processes of subsurface transport can affect the rate at which such gases will reach the surface. However, the relative abundance of anthropogenic isotopes reaching the surface following transport is currently assumed to rely solely on their direct fission yield, decay rate, and their production from precursor decay, making no account for the influence of transport processes on isotopic ratios. The Underground Transport of Environmental Xenon (UTEX) model has been developed to examine the possible effects of subsurface transport on radioxenon isotopic ratios as well as to consider a number of on-site inspection-related applications. In this work, background on the UTEX model's development, evolution and vetting is presented. This is followed by the characterization and analysis of a number of applications of the model for consideration of CTBT-relevant scenarios. Specifically, the UTEX model's capability to analyze CTBT on-site inspection concept of operations is demonstrated. This is accomplished through an examination of generalized UNE source terms, geological stratigraphy, UNE impact on local geology, natural soil-gas radionuclide backgrounds, atmospheric infiltration, and sampling methodology. It is shown that the processes driving noble gas transport through geological media can significantly skew the ratios of key radioxenon isotopes that are used to help verify whether or not a well-contained underground test has taken place. This result emphasizes the need for a broader understanding of radionuclide signatures used for CTBT verification purposes and the mechanisms that can alter them. / text

This Master thesis compares the reactions of the neighbouring countries to first nuclear tests carried out by their neighbour. It deals with first nuclear tests of eight countries (USA, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan and North Korea) and with the reactions of states that are or were at the time of the first nuclear test neighbours of concerned country. In the end, forty-seven reactions of neighbouring countries were examined in this thesis. The author relies to a large extent on qualitative research when she compares individual reactions of the countries and creates eight case studies, each focused on one nuclear state. The main output of this thesis is a clear and well-arranged typology of countries' reactions to the first nuclear test carried out in the state right across their borders. The types of reactions that have been identified in this thesis vary all the way from active support and passive coming to terms with the situations, through neutral reaction all the way to passive disapproval and active rejection. This typology can then in the future contribute to a better predictability of the neighbours' reactions and therefore also to a better assessment of how such event might affect the stability of the region.

Appendices were not supplied with the digital version of the thesis but are available in the print version. / The present research includes two studies. Study I was based on the research finding that exposure to nuclear radiation and other toxic chemicals results in those who were exposed not only believing their health to be affected, but experiencing significant and chronic stress. It was hypothesised that ongoing stress for New Zealand’s nuclear test veterans resulting from the inability to adapt to their past nuclear exposure would result in them experiencing greater depressive symptomatology, poorer perceived health, and poorer perceived memory performance than a control group. Psychological profiles of 50 nuclear test veterans and 50 age-matched Control participants were obtained through postal survey and face-to-face interview, using the Geriatric Depression Scale, Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36, and the Memory Assessment Clinics Self-Rating Scale. As predicted, the nuclear veterans exhibited more depressive symptoms, and perceived their health and memory performance to be poorer than the Control group. A stress theory framework is applied to help conceptualise the experience of the nuclear veterans, and to provide an explanation for their lower scores and consequent poorer functioning. Through the pathway of poor perceived health leading to anxiety, health anxiety was considered a form of chronic stress the nuclear veterans were experiencing. Consequently, Study II aimed to examine whether Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) could be usefully applied to relieve this anxiety. Most psychotherapeutic approaches have been developed for problems that have an "irrational" or "pathological" foundation. However, these approaches often fit poorly with psychological distress that stems from cognitions that are reality-based and may need to be accepted rather than changed, such as in the case of nuclear exposure-related health anxiety. ACT may be particularly useful in these situations in which cognitive change is not warranted. Study II examined the use of ACT with 5 NZ nuclear test veterans (of either Māori or Pākehā descent) experiencing moderate to high levels of health anxiety. Results of self-report measures administered at baseline, during treatment, post-treatment, and at 6-week follow-up indicated varying results amongst these men. One participant showed clinically significant post-treatment reductions in health anxiety, experiential avoidance, and general psychological distress that were maintained at follow-up. Two participants showed clinically significant post- vi treatment reductions in health anxiety, experiential avoidance, and distress, despite not engaging in therapy as they did not wish to make changes. For the same reason, a fourth participant chose not to engage in therapy, despite high baseline scores on all measures, and showed no improvement during or after therapy. The fifth participant had low baseline scores on all measures, maintaining these throughout therapy, and at follow-up. Results are explained in terms of cohort and gender effects, with suggestions for adapting ACT with NZ older adults, particularly males. Implications for the utility of ACT with toxic exposure populations, older adults, and various cultures are discussed.