Species conservation initiatives play an important role in ecological studies. Occupancy models have been a useful tool for ecologists to make inference about species distribution and occurrence. Bayesian methodology is a popular framework used to model the relationship between species and environmental variables. In this dissertation we develop a Gibbs sampling method using a logit link function in order to model posterior parameters of the single-season spatial occupancy model. We incorporate the widely used Intrinsic Conditional Autoregressive (ICAR) prior model to specify the spatial random effect in our sampler. We also develop OccuSpytial, a statistical package implementing our Gibbs sampler in the Python programming language. The aim of this study is to highlight the computational efficiency that can be obtained by employing several techniques, which include exploiting the sparsity of the precision matrix of the ICAR model and also making use of Polya-Gamma latent variables to obtain closed form expressions for the posterior conditional distributions of the parameters of interest. An algorithm for efficiently sampling from the posterior conditional distribution of the spatial random effects parameter is also developed and presented. To illustrate the sampler's performance a number of simulation experiments are considered, and the results are compared to those obtained by using a Gibbs sampler incorporating Restricted Spatial Regression (RSR) to specify the spatial random effect. Furthermore, we fit our model to the Helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) dataset obtained from the 2nd South African Bird Atlas Project database in order to obtain a distribution map of the species. We compare our results with those obtained from the RSR variant of our sampler, those obtained by using the stocc statistical package (written using the R programming language), and those obtained from not specifying any spatial information about the sites in the data. It was found that using RSR to specify spatial random effects is both statistically and computationally more efficient that specifying them using ICAR. The OccuSpytial implementations of both ICAR and RSR Gibbs samplers has significantly less runtime compared to other implementations it was compared to.

Orientador: Mauro Galetti / Resumo: As palmeiras são consideradas um recurso chave para os mamíferos terrestres tropicais. Entretanto, como as hiper-diversas guildas de frugívoros das florestas tropicais exploram recursos de palmeiras e coexistem, ainda é pouco compreendido. Neste trabalho, avaliamos como três espécies de mamíferos frugívoros terrestres, o queixada (Tayassu pecari), seu parente próximo, o cateto (Pecari tajacu) e a cutia (Dasyprocta azarae) interagem entre si e com os frutos de três espécies de palmeiras em uma floresta tropical da Mata Atlântica do Brasil. Utilizamos armadilhas fotográficas e modelos de ocupação para examinar as interações competitivas entre eles. Ao contrário de nossas expectativas, não encontramos evidências de exclusão competitiva entre esses frugívoros. Os queixadas exploraram principalmente as áreas de grande abundância da palmeira hiper-dominante Euterpe edulis, enquanto as cutias concentraram seu forrageamento em áreas com grande abundância de Syagrus oleracea e, em menor escala, Syagrus romamzoffiana. Os queixadas também responderam positivamente a Syagrus oleracea, mas apenas na ausência de cutias. Os catetos preferiram áreas de alta abundância de Syagrus romamzoffiana onde as outras duas espécies apresentaram baixa detecção ou estavam ausentes. Estes resultados sugerem que, apesar de ocuparem habitats semelhantes, estarem ativos durante as mesmas horas e compartilharem recursos de palmeiras semelhantes, as estratégias comportamentais dessas espécies permitem que elas... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Palm fruits are considered a key resource for tropical terrestrial forest-dwelling mammals. Yet, how hyper-diverse assemblies of frugivores in tropical forests exploit palm resources and coexist despite high diet overlap remains poorly understood. Here, we evaluate how three species of terrestrial frugivorous mammals, the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), their close relative the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and the agouti (Dasyprocta azarae), interact with each other, and with the fruits of three palm species in a tropical Atlantic Forest of Brazil. We used cameras-traps and occupancy models to examine competitive interactions amongst them. Contrary to our expectations, we found no evidence of competitive exclusion amongst these frugivores. White-lipped peccaries primarily exploited areas of large abundance of the hyper-dominant palm Euterpe edulis, whilst agoutis concentrated their foraging on areas with large abundances of Syagrus oleracea and, to a lesser extent, Syagrus romamzoffiana. White-lipped peccaries also responded positively to Syagrus oleracea, but only when agoutis were absent. Collared peccaries preferred areas of high abundance of Syagrus romamzoffiana where the other two species showed low detection or were absent. These results suggest that despite occupying similar habitats, being active during the same hours and sharing similar palm resources in an isolated forest fragment, behavioural strategies of these species allow them to coexist. / Mestre

Baseline data on a species' distribution and abundance are essential for developing practical conservation management plans. Such data are difficult to obtain for many low density cryptic carnivores. The Scottish wildcat, Felis silvestris silvestris, is no exception with <400 individuals thought to remain. Its conservation has been further complicated by extensive hybridisation and introgression with the domestic cat (F.s.catus). Hybridisation has also resulted in difficulties in discriminating between wildcats, wildcat x domestic hybrids (hybrids) and tabby coloured feral domestic cats. This has inhibited survey efforts, leading to a lack of general ecological information. Using the most recent identification tools available, extensive surveys using various methods including camera trapping were carried out across Northern Scotland in order to examine the current status of the Scottish wildcat. Current distribution indicates a more restricted range than recent studies. Wildcats are at risk of hybridisation from feral domestic cats and in particular, hybrids, throughout their current probable range. The distribution of hybrids overlaps with both feral domestic cats and wildcats, pointing to a significant threat from hybrids acting as a bridge between wildcats and feral cats. Mean density estimates of 3.5 (SD=0.7) wildcats/100 km² were comparable with those from other studies in Scotland using different survey methods. Total population size estimates ranged between 115-314 individuals depending on local densities and home range size. Population viability analysis (PVA) indicated the current population is not viable unless management actions are undertaken in the near future (Mean time to extinction = 48.2 years (SD = 9.39), probability of extinction=1, SE = 0), and that reducing mortality rates and/or supplementing populations from captive bred cats are likely to be necessary to achieve viability. Based on these data, the Scottish wildcat may be more endangered than many other species classified as Endangered and the current status of the Scottish wildcat should be reviewed.

As áreas protegidas, tanto públicas quanto privadas, e suas áreas de entorno têm desempenhado um papel relevante na sobrevivência de diversas espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte. Por essa razão, este estudo teve como primeiro objetivo estimar a riqueza de espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte no interior de três áreas de estudo com diferentes níveis de proteção, assim como nas suas respectivas áreas de entorno. Em segundo, e como principal objetivo deste trabalho, foi estimar as probabilidades de ocupação () e detecção (p) de uma espécie ameaçada, o tamanduá-bandeira (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), assim como avaliar se a ocorrência e o período de atividade dessa espécie são afetados pela presença humana. Todos os dados foram coletados por armadilhas fotográficas em três áreas de estudo no nordeste do Estado de São Paulo. A riqueza de mamíferos de médio e grande porte na região de estudo não é diferente entre as áreas com diferentes níveis de proteção ou entre interior e entorno. Quanto às análises de ocupação (uso), todas as covariáveis que influenciaram foram associadas com atividades humanas, positivamente para estradas e para áreas protegidas, e negativamente para proporção de área urbana. A relação positiva com estradas não pavimentadas é inesperada e pode sugerir que a espécie prefere mover-se ao longo da paisagem usando estradas para minimizar o tempo de viagem ou maximizar o forrageamento em paisagens alteradas. A presença humana não afetou positivamente ou negativamente o uso do espaço pelo tamanduá-bandeira, já que ambos ocorreram de maneira independente um do outro ( = 1). Este achado sugere que a falta de influência resulta em parte das características da paisagem de estudo (pressão de caça aparentemente baixa e uma razoável proporção de habitats nativos ainda presentes e protegidos), do desenho amostral empregado (concentrado em áreas protegidas e nas suas zonas de amortecimento) e, provavelmente, da baixa sobreposição nos períodos de atividades encontrada entre ambas espécies. Portanto, esses resultados indicam que tanto a sobrevivência da comunidade de mamíferos como, especificamente, do tamanduá-bandeira na região de estudo é fortemente dependente tanto das unidades de conservação (UC) como das áreas de vegetação nativas existentes em propriedades privadas protegidas pelo Código Florestal Brasileiro, além dos habitats perturbados no entorno dos grandes remanescentes. Todos os resultados encontrados são importantes para embasar a criação de novas áreas protegidas, assim como para o estabelecimento e manejo de zonas de amortecimento, pois indicam que estas têm papel chave na redução dos efeitos das atividades humanas sobre as UCs e na manutenção de populações viáveis das espécies presentes na região. / Protected areas, both public and private areas, and their surroundings have played an important role in the survival of several species of medium and large mammals. For this reason, this study aimed firstly to estimate the species richness of medium and large mammals within three study areas with different levels of protection, as well as their respective surrounding areas. Second, as the main goal of this study, it was to estimate occupancy () and detection (p) probability of an endangered species, the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), also assess if the occurrence and activity period of this species are affected by human presence. All data were collected by camera traps in three study areas in the northeast of São Paulo state. The species richness is not different between areas with different levels of protection or between interior and surroundings. Regarding occupancy analysis (use), all covariates that influenced giant anteater use were associated with human activities, positively to unpaved roads and protected areas, and negatively to proportion of urban area. The positive relationship with unpaved roads is unexpected and may suggest that giant anteater prefers to move along landscape using roads, perhaps to minimize travelling time or maximize foraging in altered landscapes. The human presence did not affect positively or negatively the use of space by giant anteater, since both species occurred independently of each other ( = 1). This finding suggests that lack of influence results in part from the landscape features of study area (apparently low hunting pressure and a reasonable proportion of native habitats still present and protected), the sampling design applied (focused on protected areas and their buffer zones) and probably due to low overlap between activity periods of both two species. Overall, results indicate that both mammals community and, specifically, giant anteater survivorship in the study region are strongly dependent upon the existence of nature reserves and areas of native vegetation existing in private properties which area protected by the Brazilian Forest Code, as well as the disturbed surrounding. All findings are important to support the creation of new protected areas, as well as the establishment and management of buffer zones, because they indicate that these zones have a key role in reducing the effects of human activities on protected areas and in the maintenance of viable species populations in the region.

As áreas protegidas, tanto públicas quanto privadas, e suas áreas de entorno têm desempenhado um papel relevante na sobrevivência de diversas espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte. Por essa razão, este estudo teve como primeiro objetivo estimar a riqueza de espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte no interior de três áreas de estudo com diferentes níveis de proteção, assim como nas suas respectivas áreas de entorno. Em segundo, e como principal objetivo deste trabalho, foi estimar as probabilidades de ocupação () e detecção (p) de uma espécie ameaçada, o tamanduá-bandeira (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), assim como avaliar se a ocorrência e o período de atividade dessa espécie são afetados pela presença humana. Todos os dados foram coletados por armadilhas fotográficas em três áreas de estudo no nordeste do Estado de São Paulo. A riqueza de mamíferos de médio e grande porte na região de estudo não é diferente entre as áreas com diferentes níveis de proteção ou entre interior e entorno. Quanto às análises de ocupação (uso), todas as covariáveis que influenciaram foram associadas com atividades humanas, positivamente para estradas e para áreas protegidas, e negativamente para proporção de área urbana. A relação positiva com estradas não pavimentadas é inesperada e pode sugerir que a espécie prefere mover-se ao longo da paisagem usando estradas para minimizar o tempo de viagem ou maximizar o forrageamento em paisagens alteradas. A presença humana não afetou positivamente ou negativamente o uso do espaço pelo tamanduá-bandeira, já que ambos ocorreram de maneira independente um do outro ( = 1). Este achado sugere que a falta de influência resulta em parte das características da paisagem de estudo (pressão de caça aparentemente baixa e uma razoável proporção de habitats nativos ainda presentes e protegidos), do desenho amostral empregado (concentrado em áreas protegidas e nas suas zonas de amortecimento) e, provavelmente, da baixa sobreposição nos períodos de atividades encontrada entre ambas espécies. Portanto, esses resultados indicam que tanto a sobrevivência da comunidade de mamíferos como, especificamente, do tamanduá-bandeira na região de estudo é fortemente dependente tanto das unidades de conservação (UC) como das áreas de vegetação nativas existentes em propriedades privadas protegidas pelo Código Florestal Brasileiro, além dos habitats perturbados no entorno dos grandes remanescentes. Todos os resultados encontrados são importantes para embasar a criação de novas áreas protegidas, assim como para o estabelecimento e manejo de zonas de amortecimento, pois indicam que estas têm papel chave na redução dos efeitos das atividades humanas sobre as UCs e na manutenção de populações viáveis das espécies presentes na região. / Protected areas, both public and private areas, and their surroundings have played an important role in the survival of several species of medium and large mammals. For this reason, this study aimed firstly to estimate the species richness of medium and large mammals within three study areas with different levels of protection, as well as their respective surrounding areas. Second, as the main goal of this study, it was to estimate occupancy () and detection (p) probability of an endangered species, the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), also assess if the occurrence and activity period of this species are affected by human presence. All data were collected by camera traps in three study areas in the northeast of São Paulo state. The species richness is not different between areas with different levels of protection or between interior and surroundings. Regarding occupancy analysis (use), all covariates that influenced giant anteater use were associated with human activities, positively to unpaved roads and protected areas, and negatively to proportion of urban area. The positive relationship with unpaved roads is unexpected and may suggest that giant anteater prefers to move along landscape using roads, perhaps to minimize travelling time or maximize foraging in altered landscapes. The human presence did not affect positively or negatively the use of space by giant anteater, since both species occurred independently of each other ( = 1). This finding suggests that lack of influence results in part from the landscape features of study area (apparently low hunting pressure and a reasonable proportion of native habitats still present and protected), the sampling design applied (focused on protected areas and their buffer zones) and probably due to low overlap between activity periods of both two species. Overall, results indicate that both mammals community and, specifically, giant anteater survivorship in the study region are strongly dependent upon the existence of nature reserves and areas of native vegetation existing in private properties which area protected by the Brazilian Forest Code, as well as the disturbed surrounding. All findings are important to support the creation of new protected areas, as well as the establishment and management of buffer zones, because they indicate that these zones have a key role in reducing the effects of human activities on protected areas and in the maintenance of viable species populations in the region.

The federal communications commission (FCC) has predicted that, under the current regulatory environment, a spectrum shortage may be faced in the near future. This impending spectrum shortage is in part due to a rapidly increasing demand for wireless services and in part due to inefficient usage of currently licensed bands. A new paradigm pertaining to wireless spectrum allocation, known as cognitive radio (CR), has been proposed as a potential solution to this problem. This dissertation seeks to contribute to research in the field of CR through an investigation into the effect that a primary user (PU) channel occupancy model will have on the performance of a secondary user (SU) in a CR network. The model assumes that PU channel occupancy can be described as a binary process and a two state Hidden Markov Model (HMM) was thus chosen for this investigation. Traditional algorithms for training the model were compared with certain evolutionary-based training algorithms in terms of their resulting prediction accuracy and computational complexity. The performance of this model is important since it provides SUs with a basis for channel switching and future channel allocations. A CR simulation platform was developed and the results gained illustrated the effect that the model had on channel switching and the subsequently achievable performance of a SU operating within a CR network. Performance with regard to achievable SU data throughput, PU disruption rate and SU power consumption, were examined for both theoretical test data as well as data obtained from real world spectrum measurements (taken in Pretoria, South Africa). The results show that a trade-off exists between the achievable SU throughput and the average PU disruption rate. Significant SU performance improvements were observed when prediction modelling was employed and it was found that the performance and complexity of the model were influenced by the algorithm employed to train it. SU performance was also affected by the length of the quick sensing interval employed. Results obtained from measured occupancy data were comparable with those obtained from theoretical occupancy data with an average percentage similarity score of 96% for prediction accuracy (using the Viterbi training algorithm), 90% for SU throughput, 83% for SU power consumption and 71% for PU disruption rate. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering / unrestricted

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems (HVAC) are the single largest consumer of energy in commercial and residential sectors. Minimizing its energy consumption without compromising indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort would result in environmental and financial benefits. Currently, most buildings still utilize constant air volume (CAV) systems with on/off control to meet the thermal loads. Such systems, without any consideration of occupancy, may ventilate a zone excessively and result in energy waste. Previous studies showed that CO₂-based demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) methods are the most widely used strategies to determine the optimal level of supply air volume. However, conventional CO₂ mass balanced models do not yield an optimal estimation accuracy. In this study, feed-forward neural network algorithm (FFNN) was proposed to estimate the zone occupancy using CO₂ concentrations, observed occupancy data and the zone schedule. The occupancy prediction result was then utilized to optimize supply fan operation of the air handling unit (AHU) associated with the zone. IAQ and thermal comfort standards were also taken into consideration as the active constraints of this optimization. As for the validation, the experiment was carried out in an auditorium located on a university campus. The results revealed that utilizing neural network occupancy estimation model can reduce the daily ventilation energy by 74.2% when compared to the current on/off control.

Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) can be viewed as a proxy for intact and healthy ecosystems. Their wild populations have plummeted to fewer than 3,200 individuals in the last four decades and threats to these apex predators are mounting rather than diminishing. Global conservation bodies (Global Tiger Initiative, World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife Conservation Society, Panthera etc.) have recently called for solidarity and scaling up of conservation efforts to save tigers from extinction. In South Asia, tiger habitat ranges from tropical evergreen forests, dry arid regions and sub-tropical alluvial floodplains, to temperate mixed deciduous forest. The churia habitat is relatively unstudied and is considered a young and geologically fragile mountain range in Nepal. The contribution of the churia habitat to tiger conservation has not been considered, since modern conservation started in 1970's. This study focuses on the ecology of the tiger with respect to population density, habitat use, and prey occupancy and density, in the churia habitat of Chitwan National Park. This study also includes the first assessment of genetic diversity, genetic structure, and gene flow of tigers across the Terai Arc Landscape- Nepal. The Terai Arc Landscape harbors the only remaining tiger population found across the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal and northwest India. I used a combination of camera-trapping techniques, which have been a popular and robust method for monitoring tiger populations across the landscape, combined with a noninvasive genetic approach to gain information on tigers, thus adding new information relevant to global tiger conservation. I investigated tiger, leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), and prey densities, and predicted the tiger density across the Churia habitat in Chitwan National Park. I used a camera-trap grid with 161 locations accumulating 2,097 trap-nights in a 60 day survey period during the winter season of 2010-2011. Additionally, I used distance sampling techniques for estimating prey density in the churia habitat by walking 136 km over 81 different line transects. The team photographed 31 individual tigers and 28 individual leopards along with 25 mammalian species from a sampling area of 536 km² comprising Churia and surrounding areas. Density estimates of tigers and leopards were 2.2 (SE 0.42) tigers and 4.0 (SE 1.00) leopards per 100 km². Prey density was estimated at 62.7 prey animals per 100 km² with contributions from forest ungulates to be 47% (sambar Rusa unicolor, chital Axis axis, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, and wild pigs Sus scrofa). Churia habitat within Chitwan National Park is capable of supporting 5.86 tigers per 100 km² based on applying models developed to predict tiger density from prey density. My density estimates from camera-traps are lower than that predicted based on prey availability, which indicates that the tiger population may be below the carrying capacity. Nonetheless, the churia habitat supports 9 to 36 tigers, increasing estimates of current population size in Chitwan National Park. Based on my finding, the Churia habitat should no longer remain ignored because it has great potential to harbor tigers. Conservation efforts should focus on reducing human disturbance to boost prey populations to potentially support higher predator numbers in Churia. I used sign surveys within a rigorous occupancy framework to estimate probability of occupancy for 5 focal prey species of the tiger (gaur Bos gaurus, sambar, chital, wild pig, and barking deer); as well as probability of tiger habitat use within 537 km² of churia habitat in Chitwan National Park. Multi-season, auto-correlation models allowed me to make seasonal (winter versus summer) inferences regarding changes in occupancy or habitat use based on covariates influencing occupancy and detection. Sambar had the greatest spatial distribution across both seasons, occupying 431-437 km² of the churia habitat, while chital had the lowest distribution, occupying only 100-158 km². The gaur population showed the most seasonal variation from 318- 413 km² of area occupied, with changes in occupancy suggesting their migration out of the lowland areas in the summer and into the churia in the winter. Wild pigs showed the opposite, moving into the churia in the summer (444 km² area occupied) and having lower occupancy in the winter (383 km²). Barking deer were widespread in both seasons (329 - 349 km²). Tiger probability of habitat use Ψ SE(Ψ) was only slightly higher in winter 0.63 (SE 0.11) than in summer 0.54 (SE 0.21), but confidence intervals overlapped and area used was very similar across seasons, from 337 - 291 km². Fine-scale variation in tiger habitat use showed that tigers intensively use certain areas more often than others across the seasons. The proportion of available habitat positively influenced occupancy for the majority of prey species and tigers. Human disturbance had a strong negative influence on the distribution of the majority of prey species but was positively related to tiger habitat use. Tigers appear to live in areas with high disturbance, thus increasing the risk of human-tiger conflict in the churia habitat. Thus, efforts to reduce human disturbance would be beneficial to reducing human wildlife conflict, enriching prey populations, and would potentially support more tigers in churia habitat of Nepal. Overall, I found high prey occupancy and tiger habitat use, suggesting that the churia is highly valuable habitat for tigers and should no longer be neglected or forgotten in tiger conservation planning. Thirdly, I assessed genetic variation, genetic structure, and gene flow of the tigers in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. I opportunistically collected 770 scat samples from 4 protected areas and 5 hypothesized corridors across the Terai Arc Landscape. Historical landuse change in the Terai Arc was extracted from Anthrome data sets to relate landuse change to potential barriers and subsequent hypothesized bottleneck events in the landscape. I used standard genetic metrics (allelic diversity and heterozygosity) to estimate genetic variation in the tiger population. Using program Structure (non-spatial) and TESS (spatial), I defined the putative genetic clusters present in the landscape. Migrant analysis was carried out in Geneclass and Bayesass for estimating contemporary gene flow. I tested for a recent population bottleneck with the heterozygosity test using program Bottleneck. Of the 700 samples, 396 were positive for tiger (57% success). Using an 8 multilocus microsatellite assay, I identified 78 individual tigers. I found large scale landuse changes across the Terai Arc Landscape due to conversion of forest into agriculture in last two centuries and I identified areas of suspected barriers. I found low levels of genetic variation (expected heterozygosity = 0.61) and moderate genetic differentiation (F_ST = 0.14) across the landscape, indicative of sub-population structure and potential isolation of sub-populations. I detected three genetic clusters across the landscape consistent with three demographic tiger sub-populations occurring in Chitwan-Parsa, Bardia, and Suklaphanta protected areas. I detected 10 migrants across all study sites confirming there is still some dispersal mediated gene flow across the landscape. I found evidence of a bottleneck signature, especially around the lowland forests in the Terai, likely caused by large scale landuse change in last two centuries, which could explain the low levels of genetic variation detected at the sub-population level. These findings are highly relevant to tiger conservation indicating that efforts to protect source sites and to improve connectivity are needed to augment gene flow and genetic diversity across the landscape. Finally, I compared the abundance and density of tigers obtained using two non-invasive sampling techniques: camera-trapping and fecal DNA sampling. For cameras: I pooled the 2009 camera-trap data from the core tiger population across the lowland areas of Chitwan National Park. I sampled 359 km² of the core area with 187 camera-trap locations spending 2,821 trap-nights of effort. I obtained 264 identifiable photographs and identified a total of 41 individual tigers. For genetics, I sampled 325 km² of the core area along three spatial routes, walking a total of 1,173 km, collecting a total of 420 tiger fecal samples in 2011. I identified 36 tigers using the assay of 8 multilocus genotypes and captured them 42 times. I analyzed both data types separately for estimating density and jointly in an integrated model using both traditional, and spatial, capture-recapture frameworks. Using Program MARK and the model averaged results, my abundance estimates were 46 (SE 1.86) and 44 (SE 9.83) individuals from camera and genetic data, respectively. Density estimates (tigers per 100 km²) via traditional buffer strip methods using half of the Mean Maximum Distance Moved (½ MMDM) as the buffer surrounding survey grids, were 4.01 (SE 0.64) for camera data and 3.49 (SE 1.04) for genetic data. Spatially explicit capture recapture models resulted in lower density estimates both in the likelihood based program DENSITY at 2.55 (SE 0.59) for camera-trap data and 2.57 (SE 0.88) for genetic data, while the Bayesian based program SPACECAP estimates were 2.44 (SE 0.30) for camera-trap data and 2.23 (SE 0.46) for genetic data. Using a spatially explicit, integrated model that combines data from both cameras and genetics, density estimates were 1.47 (SD 0.20) tigers per 100 km² for camera-trap data and 1.89 (SD 0.36) tigers per 100 km² for genetic data. I found that the addition of camera-trap data improved precision in genetic capture-recapture estimates, but not visa-versa, likely due to low numbers of recaptures in the genetic data. While a non-invasive genetic approach can be used as a stand-alone capture-recapture method, it may be necessary to increase sample size to obtain more recaptures. Camera-trap data may provide a more precise estimates, but genetic data returns more information on other aspect of genetic health and connectivity. Combining data sets in an integrated modeling framework, aiding in pinpointing strengths and weaknesses in data sets, thus ultimately improving modeling inference. / Ph. D.