This report is the documentation for a stiffness formulation to perform rigid diaphragm analysis for wood structures subjected to wind loads. Traditionally, rigid diaphragm analysis has been performed using a vaguely-defined superposition approach; however, this report details a more rational stiffness approach to solving for forces placed on walls resulting from a rigid diaphragm, and its implementation is via a simple spreadsheet application. In addition to the formulation of the spreadsheet, the report contains a User’s Guide and examples of the spreadsheet’s use. The purpose of the spreadsheet is not as a replacement to more sophisticated and comprehensive finite element analysis software, but as a tool to aid designers who practice engineering and may not have access to such software. In general, the application is developed for wood diaphragms as will be noted by references to wood-related codes. However, much of the approach may be used for diaphragms constructed with other materials as well. / text

Ganoderma lucidum and G. tsugae are two members of the G. lucidum complex. The authenticity of the two wood-rotting species was demonstrated by comparative studies. Ganoderma lucidum is restricted to hardwoods. Its "smooth" walled basidiospores were characterized by narrow, numerous inter-wall pillars. Isolates of G. lucidum produced chlamydospores in culture and had an average growth of 7.8 mm/da at their optimum temperature range of 30-34 C. Ganoderma tsugae is restricted to conifers. Its basidiospores were "rough" walled and had broad inter-wall pillars. Isolates of G. tsugae did not produce chlamydospores in culture and had an average growth of 2.1 mm/da at the optimum temperature range of 20-25 C. Mating systems were determined for both species as heterothallic and tetrapolar. Interspecific matings of homokaryons were incompatible. Homokaryons of a European G. resinaceum isolate were interfertile with homokaryons from North American collections of G. lucidum. The ability of G. lucidum and G. tsugae to decay wood in vitro was studied using the following woods in agar block decay chambers: grape, oak, mesquite, white fir, and Douglas-fir. Grape wood lost the most weight while mesquite the least. G. lucidum isolates generally caused greater weight loss of all woods than did G. tsugae isolates. Both Ganoderma species caused simultaneous decay in all woods. However, chemical analyses of the decayed blocks indicated that selective delignification by both species also occurred in grape and white fir blocks but not in oak or Douglas-fir blocks. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated various stages of selective delignification and simultaneous decay of all woods tested. Isolates of Ganoderma lucidum infected Dog Ridge variety grape plants, grown in the greenhouse, from below-ground wood block inoculations. Twenty-four plants were inoculated: one plant died and 4 other plants declined. After 24 months reisolations yielded only G. lucidum from the five declining plants, demonstrating pathogenicity. The fungus developed in the heartwood and, in later stages, invaded the sapwood. Infected plants developed water stress symptoms with leaves wilting, yellowing, and dying. Field grape plants inoculated with the fungus developed decay columns as large as 42 cm in 17 mons. Decay was limited to the heartwood; no foliar symptoms occurred.

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Direct liquefaction of wood with aqueous HI solution to a wood oil product under low severity conditions, atmospheric pressure and low temperature around 125°C, was investigated in two stages. The first stage involved batch reactor studies. The wood-HI liquefaction reaction is fast, nearly complete in as little as 20s when the initial aqueous phase concentration is 57 wt% HI or greater. Yield of the char-type residue, a major problem in other liquefaction processes, is completely eliminated provided the final aqueous phase concentration is 50 wt% HI or above. The performance of this process with wood is better than would be predicted from experiments on the liquefaction of wood components determined separately. / Removal of oxygen from polymeric wood components is accomplished with oxidation of I- to I2. The second stage tested a novel concept for closing the HI → I2 → HI loop, an electrochemical liquefaction reactor (ECLR) with liquefaction in the cathode cell where I2 is simultaneously reduced back to I- . Electrolysis of water at the anode generates O2 and the H+ required at the platinum cathode for HI regeneration. Without wood liquefaction, current efficiency for I2 reduction is 90--100% and I2 concentration can be maintained at about 0.1 M, which is about 10% of that without I2 reduction. / Preliminary ECLR tests in batch and batchwise-continuous modes demonstrated simultaneous wood liquefaction and electrochemical reduction of I2 in the presence of the viscous wood oil. Also the iodine content of the crude wood oil is thereby reduced by about 60%, where this limit is imposed by the strong physical association between I2 and various functional groups in the product. Generation of H2, the competitive reaction, can be avoided. / ECLR characteristics were determined from a continuous run in a sealed reactor at a steady aqueous phase concentration of 55 wt% HI with a cathode current density of 0.81 A/cm2 at a cell voltage of 6 V. Carbon base yields were 84.2% crude wood oil product, 4.9% methyl iodide from the lignin methoxy groups and no production of the char-type residue common to other biomass liquefaction processes. Of the I2 produced, 93% would be reduced to HI, the other 7% being I2 associated physically with the product. Of the H+ generated at the anode, about half is used for HI regeneration and half for electrochemical liquefaction reactions as reflected by the exceptionally high levels of hydrogen retention and oxygen removal of the wood oil relative to the wood, above 85% in both cases.

A catalyzed chemimechanical-anthraquinone pulping of black spruce wood was investigated in this study. The effect of liquor pH on anthraquinone performance, AQ and mass transfer limitations on chemimechanical pulp properties and the effects of AQ, liquor pH and sulphite concentration on pulping kinetic were studied. / It was observed that AQ was not an effective redox catalyst when added to the sulphite liquor at pH 4, but it was very effective at pH 7 and higher. When chemical treatment of chemimechanical pulping was done with the presence of AQ, the sulphur content of pulp was reduced due to preferential reaction of AQ with wood components. AQ, as a pulping agent, is much effective in increasing the delignification rate and at the same time protecting the degradation of carbohydrates. / Pulps produced from wood wafers with cooking liquor at pH 7 containing 0.1% of AQ on oven dry wood, exhibited the following improved properties when compared with those prepared without addition of AQ: increased pulping rate, higher pulp yield and carbohydrates yield at the same level of residual lignin in pulp, and in addition, the strength properties such as breaking length and burst strength improved by 15% even with a minimum AQ charge (0.05% and 0.01%). / With regular wood chips, the penetration of sulphite seems to be superior to that of AQ. It was observed that AQ was not uniformly distributed in the impregnated wood chips even when the compression ratio was increased from 3.5:1 to 5:1. The penetration of AQ into wood chips remains to be a major factor affecting the pulping rate and pulp properties (strength and brightness) in chemimechanical-AQ pulping. / The rate of delignification in the initial phase of both sulphite and sulphite-AQ cooking at pH 7 shows the second order reaction in the remaining lignin. The order with respect to sulphite concentration for sulphite and sulphite-AQ cooking were estimated to be 0.24 and 0.31, respectively. The activation energies of delignification of the initial phase in sulphite and sulphite-AQ pulping were 90.2 and 97.5 kJ/mole which was valid up to 30% lignin removal within the temperature range of 160°C and 175°C. AQ as a pulping additive introduced to the sulphite liquor increased the rate of delignification 1.5 times in the initial phase of delignification during the sulphite cooking process. / At initial pH of sulphite liquor ranging from 7 to 10, the rate of delignification in the initial phase during sulphite and sulphite-AQ cooking appears to be a second order reaction in the remaining lignin. The reaction orders with respect to sulphite concentration increases when the initial pH is below 8 and decreases when the initial pH is above 8 for both sulphite and sulphite-AQ cooking. The raw of delignificafion is dependent on the initial pH of cooking liquor and the addition of AQ.

A new three-dimensional finite solid element (3D FE) model for dowel-type wood connections was developed using the concept of a beam on a nonlinear wood foundation, which addresses the intricate wood crushing behaviour under the connector in a dowel type connection. In order to implement the concept of wood foundation with solid elements, a 3D FE wood foundation model was defined within a prescribed foundation zone surrounding the dowel. Based on anisotropic plasticity material theory, the material model for the foundation zone was developed using effective foundation material constants that were defined from dowel-embedment test data. New 3D FE single nail connection models were developed that incorporated the wood foundation model. The 3D wood foundation model was justified and validated using dowel-embedment test data with a range of dowel diameters, from a 2.5-mm nail to a 25.4-mm bolt. The connection models provided successful results in simulating the characteristics of load-slip behaviour that were experimentally observed. Based on the success of the single nail connection models, several applications of the 3D FE connection models were investigated including statistical wood material models, bolted connection models and a multiple nail connection model. Throughout the application studies, discussion of the benefits and limitations of the new model approach using the 3D FE wood foundation are presented. Also, future areas of study are proposed in order to improve the 3D FE dowel-type wood connections models.

Floods are considered to be among of the deadliest, costliest and most common natural disasters. Rapid onset, catastrophic floods inundate the shore quickly and manifest as deep water with high velocities. The deep water and high velocities caused by these floods inflict great pressures and forces on the built and natural environments and pose a threat to human safety. Recent disasters such as Hurricane Katrina in the Southern United States and the Sumatra tsunami in the Indian Ocean have revealed that communities at risk require improved preparations for these types of dangerous events. Current building codes, design practices and disaster planning methods account for potential earthquake and wind loads on simple wood frame buildings typical of North American residential construction, however, flood impacts have not been considered in the same level of depth. The objectives of this research are to develop a theoretical model that describes flood impacts on wood frame residential buildings and relates building response to physical flood properties such as depth and velocity. This thesis provides a brief synopsis of previous approaches used to describe building response to flooding. An overview of the major loads caused by rapid onset flooding, along with a description of the structural system utilized in wood design to resist these forces is provided. The failure mechanisms considered and the model logic are described and applied to assess the response of a typical Canadian wood frame home to flood conditions that might be experienced in a rapid onset flood event like a tsunami. Building response results are discussed along with recommendations for future analysis and applications.