This thesis is the first work devoted specifically to the syntax of wh-questions in a Southern Interior Salish language. As such, it provides a descriptive foundation for future work on the syntax of Okanagan, as well as forming the basis for comparative investigation of wh-questions both within the Southern Interior branch of the Salish family and between the Southern Interior and other better known branches. Chapter 2 examines the basic word order patterns for clauses and describes the distribution of determiners and complementizers in cleft constructions. Chapter 3 compares three potential analyses of wh-questions for Okanagan: a wh-in-situ analysis,, a wh-movement analysis, and a cleft analysis. I show that a wh-in-situ analysis was not viable for Okanagan on the basis of a comparison of word order possibilities in non-wh sentences and wh-questions. I then turned to the other two possible analyses, a wh-movement analysis along the lines of English, and a cleft analysis, as suggested for other Salish languages by Davis et al (1993) and Kroeber (1991, 1999). Choosing between these analyses proved much more difficult: evidence exists both for and against each analysis, and I was unable to choose between them. Chapter 4 examines multiple wh-questions in Okanagan. It appeared possible for at least some speakers to produce multiple wh-questions with either two argument wh-phrases or an argument and an adjunct wh-phrase. The latter type of multiple wh-question showed an interesting type of reverse superiority effect: speakers consistently preferred to place the argument wh-phrase in preverbal position and the adjunct wh-phrase in post-verbal position. If this really is a superiority effect, it implies that the relative structural positions of adjuncts and arguments are the opposite of those found in English. Chapter 5 investigates long-range wh-dependencies. First of all, I established that such dependencies are indeed possible. I show that long-range dependencies are sensitive to at least three standard island constraints: the Complex Noun Phrase Constraint, the Wh-Island Constraint and the Adjunct Island Constraint. Though I was unable to choose between a wh-movement and a wh-cleft analysis for wh-questions, my research unequivocally establishes the existence of A-bar movement dependencies in Okanagan. This is demonstrated by the existence of long-range movement assymetries as shown by superiority effects in multiple wh-questions and by the existence of adjunct island effects which argue strongly that there must be a configurational basis for the argument/adjunct distinction contra the Pronominal Argument Hypothesis (see Jelinek and Demers 1994 on Northern Straits Salish). Another important consequence of this work is the distinction between two types of focus structure in Okanagan. On the one hand, as in other Salish languages, a nominal predicate (including a wh-predicate based on the argument wh-words swit and stim') may occur with a relative clause introduced by the determiner i?; on the other hand both adjunct and argument DP's (including wh-adjuncts) may occur in cleft structures introduced by one of the complementizers ki?and ta?. Though this distinction corresponds in some ways to that between 'bare' and 'introduced' clefts in other Salish languages (see Kroeber 1999, pg. 370-373), the details of the introduced cleft construction in particular differ in significant ways from the rest of Salish. It remains to be seen how other Southern Interior languages behave in this respect.

This study’s primary focus is on white settlement and Indian dispossession and marginalizatian, the theme being developed in the context of a comprehensive local history A number of sub-themes are developed including the relationship between political power and landholding, the changing role of chiefs in Indian society, the importance of the railway in consolidating economic power, the connection between transportation and changing industrial activity and the significance of land tenure regimes in economic performance. After an introduction and outline history the paper is organized in three parts. The first deals with the institutions which supported settlers and were imposed upon Indians. The four institutions examined are missionary activity as it related to Indians and the political, judicial and educational structures as they affected Indians and whites. The notable characteristic of these institutions is that the services delivered to the two racial groups were markedly different, that Indians never received the benefit of their support. The second section considers the critical question of Indian access to resources, the conditions under which reserves were assigned and then repeatedly altered, and the question of aboriginal rights to the land The discrepancy in the terms in which whites and Indians could claim land and the insecurity of tenure of Indians is documented. The third section considers economic sectors: hunting, fishing and gathering, mining, stockraising and agriculture. In the latter two industries, pursued by both Indians and whites, the two communities are juxtaposed to observe differences in their conduct of those industries. The critical elements determining different performance are identified as the differing quantities of obtainable land, and the land and water tenure regimes under which the participants operated although other factors such as increasing capitalization, an oppressive Department of Indian affairs, inadequate access to education and health services and restricted rights in the political and judicial spheres were contributing factors. Okanagan society in the pre-World War I era is seen as a racist society, one in which a completely different set of rules existed for each race and in which social distance between races increased over time White settlers succeeded in building a society with all the features of the modern world: well developed transportation and communications, urban centres, supportive social service institutions, and an educated and prosperous population, in short, a harmonious and just society But this development occured at the expense of the Indian Population. As a society they could only be characterized as a dependent, impoverished, diseased and illiterate people, prone to alcohol and appearing to lack in ambition White success was built upon Indian dispossession. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

No abstract included. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

This thesis is the first work devoted specifically to the syntax of wh-questions in a Southern Interior Salish language. As such, it provides a descriptive foundation for future work on the syntax of Okanagan, as well as forming the basis for comparative investigation of wh-questions both within the Southern Interior branch of the Salish family and between the Southern Interior and other better known branches. Chapter 2 examines the basic word order patterns for clauses and describes the distribution of determiners and complementizers in cleft constructions. Chapter 3 compares three potential analyses of wh-questions for Okanagan: a wh-in-situ analysis,, a wh-movement analysis, and a cleft analysis. I show that a wh-in-situ analysis was not viable for Okanagan on the basis of a comparison of word order possibilities in non-wh sentences and wh-questions. I then turned to the other two possible analyses, a wh-movement analysis along the lines of English, and a cleft analysis, as suggested for other Salish languages by Davis et al (1993) and Kroeber (1991, 1999). Choosing between these analyses proved much more difficult: evidence exists both for and against each analysis, and I was unable to choose between them. Chapter 4 examines multiple wh-questions in Okanagan. It appeared possible for at least some speakers to produce multiple wh-questions with either two argument wh-phrases or an argument and an adjunct wh-phrase. The latter type of multiple wh-question showed an interesting type of reverse superiority effect: speakers consistently preferred to place the argument wh-phrase in preverbal position and the adjunct wh-phrase in post-verbal position. If this really is a superiority effect, it implies that the relative structural positions of adjuncts and arguments are the opposite of those found in English. Chapter 5 investigates long-range wh-dependencies. First of all, I established that such dependencies are indeed possible. I show that long-range dependencies are sensitive to at least three standard island constraints: the Complex Noun Phrase Constraint, the Wh-Island Constraint and the Adjunct Island Constraint. Though I was unable to choose between a wh-movement and a wh-cleft analysis for wh-questions, my research unequivocally establishes the existence of A-bar movement dependencies in Okanagan. This is demonstrated by the existence of long-range movement assymetries as shown by superiority effects in multiple wh-questions and by the existence of adjunct island effects which argue strongly that there must be a configurational basis for the argument/adjunct distinction contra the Pronominal Argument Hypothesis (see Jelinek and Demers 1994 on Northern Straits Salish). Another important consequence of this work is the distinction between two types of focus structure in Okanagan. On the one hand, as in other Salish languages, a nominal predicate (including a wh-predicate based on the argument wh-words swit and stim') may occur with a relative clause introduced by the determiner i?; on the other hand both adjunct and argument DP's (including wh-adjuncts) may occur in cleft structures introduced by one of the complementizers ki?and ta?. Though this distinction corresponds in some ways to that between 'bare' and 'introduced' clefts in other Salish languages (see Kroeber 1999, pg. 370-373), the details of the introduced cleft construction in particular differ in significant ways from the rest of Salish. It remains to be seen how other Southern Interior languages behave in this respect. / Arts, Faculty of / Linguistics, Department of / Graduate

This dissertation is a study of certain clause-level constructions: in the Okanagan language and. an exploration of the adequacy of Relational Grammar for describing these constructions. Four major issues are addressed: (i) the nature of transitivity in Okanagan; (ii) the identity of the grammatical relations which are necessary to the syntactic analysis of Okanagan; (iii) the occurrence of re-evaluations of these grammatical relations in this language; and (iv) the nature of the Middle voice in this language. Arguments and language, data are brought to bear on these issues, providing evidence to support (1) the characterization of transitivity as a property of strata or level rather than of clause or of verb; (ii) the necessity in Relational Grammar of the grammatical relations: Subject, Direct Object, Indirect Object, Dative, Instrumental, Locative, Topic, and Chomeur for the syntactic analysis of the language; and (iii) the occurrence of the following re-evaluations: 21 Advancement and 11 Demotion in Passive constructions; Phantom Advancement of a non-nuclear object, non-distinct with the initial subject; Unaccusative Advancement; Dative, Locative, Relational and Instrumental Advancements, with concomitant Demotions of the nominal previously bearing the target relation; and Possessor Ascension; and (iv) a Phantom Arc solution for the syntactic analysis of the Middle, voice, construction in this language. It is concluded (a) that, the analyses presented contribute in an explanatory way to the study of Salishan linguistics; (h) that these analyses attest to the productivity of the theoretical model, Relational Grammar, with, respect to certain clause-level constructions of Okanagan; (c) that some rules referring to transitivity require reference to non-distinctiveness as well as to 1 and to 2; (d) that one of the principles of Relational Grammar, the 1-Advancement Exclusiveness Law, must be modified to allow language-particular conditions: on its applicability; and (e) that the theory of Relational Grammar needs further elaboration to deal with the mapping of thematic relations onto grammatical relations. / Arts, Faculty of / Linguistics, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of the study is to determine which factors contributed to the production of apples in the Okanagan area during the year 1969. Regression analysis is used in an attempt to quantify yield relationships. A comparison is made among different tree-size categories in order to determine whether it is necessary to fit separate regression equations instead of using the data for the three groups in a single regression equation. For this purpose an Equality of Slope Test is performed. The outcome of the test shows that there are no significant differences among corresponding coefficients in the equations for tree-size categories. Hence it is feasible to combine them into one equation. For the regression analysis, two different types of yield relationships are employed: one is a Cobb-Douglas function linear in the logarithms and the other is a quadratic function. Both functions include a dependent variable, namely, yield per acre and seven independent variables; that is, density, age, value of fertilizer applied, value of spray applied, pruning and thinning labour hours, geographical dummy, and tree-size index. These independent variables are measured on a per-acre basis except in the case of age, geographical dummy and tree-size index. The data, which consists of cross-section informa- tion for 1969 represents one hundred and nineteen sample apple plots. It was derived from personal interviews with apple growers. The quadratic function poses a problem arising from cross-terms in the equation. It was necessary to modify the function in such a manner that the cross-terms included in the regression equation were justified on biological or economic grounds. The regression results for each type of function used in the analysis are discussed and estimates of coefficients and related standard errors shown. It seems desirable that data should be broken down into apple variety groups because different varieties of apple may well have distinct bearing characteristics. Apple trees in the specific plots under study, however, are made up of a mixture of varieties, thus it is extremely difficult to draw a clear map of acreages occupied by each variety. In attempting to obtain variety data, notwithstanding the mixture of varieties in stands, the original data is broken down under certain assumptions. Also in decomposing apple yields into grade constituents similar problems arise. Despite these difficulties, tests of differences among average yields are made under stated conditions for varietal, tree-size, apple-grade, and regional categories. These tests reveal that there are no significant differences in average apple yields for varieties, apple grades and regions., but there are significant differences in the case of different tree sizes. The results of these Tests are presented in Chapter VI. The quadratic form of function seems, within the theoretical framework, to be able to represent satisfactorily the apple yield relationship with the selected independent variables. But, in practice, it does not conform well to the empirical situation; it produces a serious multicolline-arity problem from the point of view of statistical inference. The Cobb-Douglas function, however, does not cause such a problem. Apart from this, its application brought in almost all the coefficients corresponding to the basic independent variables except for the coefficient of the tree-size index variable. On this evidence, a tentative conclusion was made in favour of the Cobb-Douglas function for the representation of an apple yield relationship in the Okanagan in 1969. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis on some aspects of the community organization method in the expansion of welfare services in the Okanagan Valley, covers the period of five years from 1958 to 1963, during which the writer was resident in Vernon. The thesis is, therefore, by nature a field experiment in observation, with an attempt at a critical analysis of the services secured in the light of accepted methods of community organization. It was a matter of excitement that so many welfare services were secured in that relatively short- space of time, and so many others were explored or initiated; this phenomenon has significance for other areas of the province and, in so far as is known, this type of social reporting has not been carried out elsewhere in British Columbia. A review of the historical background of the Okanagan Valley shows that it is bountifully supplied with the natural elements and resources which made pioneering relatively easy. Fruit growing, lumbering, and, in the early days, trapping, were the main sources of livelihood. The study shows that these have varied to some degree, especially with the phenomenal growth of Tourism, yet the need to develop secondary industries is of prime importance. The social condition of the people reflects the economic, - increasingly the expanded population requires housing, and the old orchards are giving way to new housing subdivisions. An increasingly complex manner of life demands a comparable network of welfare services. This thesis is essentially concerned with how one city In the Okanagan Valley gradually developed a community consciousness toward getting things done by their own efforts. The research method is largely empirical, as the writer was involved in many of the group efforts made by other Vernon citizens, and came away with a great sense of admiration for the degree of sophistication the city achieved. Questionnaires, personal interviews, actual participation and observation, were some of the methods used, and a two year interval has also afforded an opportunity for some retrospection about the validity of the changes which took place. The study finds that, where public welfare-services are unable to fulfil needs, community effort at identifying these unmet needs leads to a richer concept of themselves in groups; they learn to appreciate the peculiar contribution of each other. As Murray Ross believes that the development of true community organization demands "community morale" as much as the ability to identify need, one has searched for ways in which the people of Vernon sought to achieve this morale and self-confidence. Professional involvement in the community is also shown to create an integrated approach to community problems. Better understanding of professional and volunteer function is thus fostered, which in turn creates mutual respect for each other's efforts at solving common problems and filling unmet needs. As communities grow even more complex, it is seen that the contention as made in the September, 1965 brief by the B.C. Association of Social Workers to the Provincial Secretary is justified, that is, that community organisers should be appointed to act as liaison between an advisory council and the body of volunteers, with their professional counterparts at the local level. One could hope for such a professional organizer to serve the needs of Canada's expanding population to the north, thus bringing services to new communities before problems arise, a truly preventive measure. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

This study investigates the operational decision process for Okanagan Lake, a natural lake regulated by a dam at the outlet for flood control, irrigation and water supply purposes. In addition, the Lake supports a substantial tourist industry. The Lake is principally supplied by snowmelt and a forecast of total inflow volume during the critical runoff season is available to assist the operator. The operational decision process was found to differ from the sequential decision basis of many Operations Research techniques and the absence of information on costs and benefits precluded the use of conventional optimization procedures. The importance of making the best use of the inflow forecast to achieve the operational goals was recognized and was used as the basis of the decision analysis developed. The method developed assesses possible immediate operational decisions by evaluating the effectiveness of future discharges to correct for past decision errors. The evaluation is made in terms of the probabilities of exceeding Operational constraints and of achieving operational goals. The method involves simulation of sets of monthly inflows for the remainder of the runoff season given an inflow volume forecast and knowledge of the probable accuracy of the forecast; computation of water levels which would occur with various operating procedures; frequency analysis of the resulting levels; interpretation of the frequencies as probabilities; and presentation of the resulting information describing the operational situation in readily assimilable form. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

The Okanagan Valley is the boundary between the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex of the Omenica Belt to the east and the Intermontane Belt to the west. The Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex consists of greenschist to amphibolite grade paragneiss and large areas of massive, gneissic, and mylonitic granitic rock. The Intermontane Belt consists of tectonically scrambled late Paleozoic to Triassic eugeosynclinal rocks, intruded by large Jurassic plutons and locally by plutons of mid-Cretaceous age. These are overlain by Eocene non-marine volcanic and sedimentary rocks, capped by fanglomerate breccias and gravity slide megabreccias. The thesis area contains all of these elements. In particular, the mid-Jurassic Oliver pluton is composed of three separate intrusive phases. The oldest phase is a heterogeneous biotite-hornblende diorite, which was intruded by the most extensive phase: a porphyritic biotite granite. The youngest phase is a garnet-muscovite granite. The intrusion of this last phase created the porphyritic biotite granite from an originally more mafic, hornblende bearing granodiorite. The mineralogy of the garnet-muscovite granite suggests that it might be of S-type. Several geochemical plots contradict this and suggests it is a highly evolved I-type magma. Previous geochronometry indicates that the tectonic boundary between the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex and the Intermontane Belt separates: 1) gneisses on the east that consistently yield K-Ar dates of 40-60 Ma, typically 51 Ma for hornblende and 48-50 Ma for biotite, from 2) intrusive rocks on the west that yield Jurassic K-Ar and Rb-Sr dates and Eocene volcanic rocks, erupted largely between 53 and 45 Ma. U-Pb dating of zircons indicates the presence of early Jurassic to mid-Jurassic plutons both east (granite of Anarchist Mtn., 160Ma; gneiss of Osoyoos, 201Ma deformed) and west (Similkameen granodiorite, 170Ma; Olalla Syenite, 18O-190Ma; undeformed) of the Okanagan Valley. East of the Okanagan Valley there are also mylonitic gneisses of Cretaceous age (gneiss of Skaha Lake, 105-120Ma; gneissic sill of Vaseaux Lake, 97Ma), as well as metamorphosed and deformed Eocene intrusives (Rhomb Porphyry, 51Ma). The interpretation is thaL although there are Jurassic plutons and early Mesozoic deformation in both the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex and the Intermontane Belt, there are also Cretaceous and Tertiary intrusive bodies within the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex that have been highly deformed in late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time. Regional geochronometry summarized on time versus blocking temperature graphs emphasizes the large (10 km) and rapid (1-4 mm/yr) unroofing needed to bring the gneisses east of the Okanagan Valley to near surface temperatures in Eocene time. Field evidence for a low angle west dipping detachment fault (Okanagan Valley fault) which juxtaposes brittle disrupted Eocene and older rocks against unannealed mylonitic rocks with Eocene K-Ar dates justifies comparison of the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex with other Cordilleran metamorphic core complexes. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines the relationship between water and yield for apples in the Okanagan region of British Columbia. This is accomplished through a model which simulates the water/yield relationship in tree fruits. Two soil types, two rootstocks, and two irrigation systems were included in the simulation. The results of the simulation indicate that Okanagan orchard irrigation water requirements are substantially lower than present irrigation application rates. Using sprinkler irrigation, irrigation requirements for silt-loam soils amounted to 30% of present application rates, while for sand soils 42% of present application rates were required. Trickle irrigation requirements were determined to be 71% of sprinkler requirements for similar yields. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate