There are two themes that are explored in this thesis. The first is an examination of the process of acculturation, defined here as the process of learning skills and strategies native to another group. The second is comparative and examines the causes for the relative success that the Portuguese had in learning to accommodate and be accepted in Canada. By the same token the sources of acculturative stress for the Sikhs will be identified. The two groups are comparable along several dimensions such as age, education, skills, knowledge of English on arrival and so on. Learning to be effective in Canada means understanding and acting appropriately in given contexts. The spheres that I have identified as important are the workplace and the community in which they live. The other spheres that come under scrutiny as a result of the spillover of public activities and experiences are the family, and the sphere of religious beliefs and practices. The workplace, I argue, is a central institution wherein acculturation is imperative. Secondly, the establishment of individuals in the community is a crucial factor. While the formation of an ethnic enclave might serve as a support system for newcomers, it also isolates and separates them from others. The Sikh definition of identity is hierarchical, with religion providing an anchorage for all other spheres such as the family, caste, village, and occupation. In sort, individuals did not experience life activities as differentiated or unrelated. Given the contexts of ambivalence and hostility they perceived and/or experienced in Canada, the acquisition of new forms of thought were neither seen as a challenge nor a necessity; but as a threat to their identity. The Portuguese model, on the other hand, recognizes the distinction between public and private lives. To them being "Portuguese" and/or "Catholic" are primarily private matters. Also, by and large they gave importance to individual achievement over corporate identity. To them, acculturation and ethnic identity were complementary modes for the definition of themselves within the Canadian context. / Arts, Faculty of / Sociology, Department of / Graduate

An investigation was carried out in order to evaluate some of the factors which influence the use of dwarf and semi-dwarf apple trees in commercial orchards in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Three determining factors were found to be of prime importance: the planting density of the trees in the orchard, the tree form as determined by the pruning and training system carried out and the nature of the rootstock used. In the Doornberg Orchards at Okanagan Centre where the experiments were conducted, semi-dwarf trees on Malling VII rootstock trained as hedgerows and planted at a high density per acre gave the optimum earliest and total yields and returns. The experiments were carried out from planting time up to the end of the sixth growing season. The variety of apple used in the experiment was Golden Delicious. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Tree fruit farms in the south Okanagan Valley are characterized by a high degree of specialization. Over 95 per cent of the irrigated land of these farms is in orchard. The farms are small in area and few livestock are kept. Depending on their location, the orchards may be classified into three main "types, namely, apple, stone fruit and combination fruit farms. To provide an insight into the structure, production techniques, and problems of the orchardists, 165 farm business records which had been obtained from the growers in the years 1949 and 1950, were studied and analysed. Also an endeavour was made to answer the question, do the majority of the orchards supply full employment and an adequate income for the operators?. The average capital investment on these farms was over $21,000. On each type of farm, orchard land accounted for more than 65 per cent of the total farm investment. Excluding the value of the farm dwelling, machinery and equipment made up the second largest capital investment. Apple farms in the south Okanagan Valley averaged 17 acres in area, of which 15 acres were in orchard; stone fruit farms averaged 11 acres, of which 9 acres were in orchard; and combination fruit farms had an average total acreage of 14 acres, of which approximately 12 acres were in orchard. The average total cash receipts for these years were $7,276 for the apple farmers; $5,551 for the stone fruit farmer; and $6,953 for the combination fruit farmer. On the apple farms 69 per cent of the total cash receipts were derived from the sale of apples; on the stone fruit farms 75 per cent derived from the sale of stone fruits; and on the combination fruit farms, stone fruits provided per cent, and apples 34 per cent of the total cash receipts. Labour was the largest single item of expense on each type of orchard, varying from 49 per cent to 54 per cent of the total current expenses. The average net income on the apple farms was $2,346; on the stone fruit farms, $2,783; and on the combination fruit farms, $2,720. The factors determining the total output of fruit in any one year include the number of trees, their age distribution, the variety of fruit grown, the amount of cultural care, the prevalence of disease and pests, and the weather. Although the year to year production of all fruits in the valley is erratic, the trend in total production has been upward. The average output of apricots for the three year period, 1947-1949, was 110 per cent greater than the average output for the three year period, 1939-1941. Comparing the same periods, the total yield of cherries increased by 110 per cent, peaches by 141 per cent, pears by 89 per cent, and apples by 44 per cent. Since 1930 the average yield per acre of apple, pear, plum and prune trees has shown a steady increase, whereas the yield per acre of apricot, cherry and peach trees has varied widely from year to year. The tree population of the south Okanagan has been steadily increasing, but the relative position of the various kinds of tree fruits has changed. In 1925 apple trees made up 66 per cent of the total number of trees; in 1950 they accounted for 33 per cent of the total tree inventory. On the farms studied, the majority of the apple trees were over 20 years of age. Most of the apricot, peach, plum, prune, and pear trees were less than 15 years of age. On 94 orchards 16 per cent of the apricot, 15 per cent of the cherry, 31 per cent of the peach, 10 per cent of the plum and prune, and 4 per cent of the pears were killed in the winter of 1949-50. Considering acreage trends, the number of non-bearing trees, and the number of trees to be removed, as well as the average yield, it would appear that for the next few years the general trend in south Okanagan Valley apple, apricot, plum, prune, and pear production will be upward, while the trend of peach and cherry production will be downward. In general the domestic market takes the Okanagan stone fruit and pear crop but the apple grower is dependent to a large extent upon the export market. Present deterioration of the apple market presages a trend to further increases in the plantings of stone fruit and pear trees. Volume of production, yield, and the degree of diversification appear to influence the size of labour earnings. The average total amount of labour required to produce an acre of apples was 253 hours, an acre of apricots 469 hours, an acre of cherries 608 hours, an acre of peaches 386 hours, an acre of prunes 222 hours, and an acre of pears 350 hours per annum. Although the labour prior to harvest was spread over many months, the total pre-harvest time was less than that required for harvesting the fruit, except in the cases of peach, apple and pear trees. On studying the influence of yield on labour requirements, it was found that a doubling of the yield per acre of peaches resulted in an increase of the harvesting time required by 57 per cent. For pear trees doubling of the yield increased the harvest requirements by 75 per cent. From an economic and social viewpoint, it is suggested that a desireable farm organization for the area would be the two family farm. Such a unit, under long run yield expectations and 1949 cost-price relationships, would fully employ two men and provide them with labour earnings of over $3,000 per man, yearly. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The study problem was to analyse the characteristics of individuals who reported interest in continuing education from data collected by means of interviews conducted in a survey of rural residents in the North Okanagan. Two hypotheses were tested to ascertain whether or not there were any significant differences between interested respondents and uninterested respondents with respect to socio-psychological characteristics; and whether or not there were any significant differences between interested participants in adult education and interested non-participants. Data from two hundred and thirty-nine household heads were analysed. There were statistically significant differences between interested and uninterested respondents with respect to twelve psycho-social characteristics. Of the characteristics of interested respondents studied there were significant differences between participants and non-participants with respect to four: including, level of schooling, wife's schooling, social participation and level of living. The findings of this study indicated that interest in continuing education was higher for younger respondents, for those with more years of schooling and those whose wives had completed more years of school. Respondents who expressed interest in further education or training had a higher level of living index and a higher income; they were more active in social organizations and in adult education courses; they were more likely to have been born in Canada outside of the survey area than in the North Okanagan district or in other countries. Interest was higher for farm respondents who had more personal contacts with agricultural extension personnel. Interest in continuing education was lower for respondents who were more alienated, and those who had a negative attitude toward change. It was lower also for those who had been unemployed longer in the last three years and those who had spent fewer years in their present occupation. Expressed interest appears to be one of the measurable characteristics which may be expected to affect the future participation of individuals in adult education. The findings of this study indicated that among those respondents who were interested in continuing education or training, those who had participated in adult education courses were more likely to have had more schooling and their wives to have completed more years of school; were more active in social organizations; and had a higher level of living. Age, schooling and wife's schooling are important factors in all studies of adult education participation. The indications of this study are that the kinds of attitudes or abilities which lead a respondent to earn socially approved membership in the community are also related to participation in adult education. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

The study problem was to analyse the characteristics of individuals who reported interest in continuing education from data collected by means of interviews conducted in a survey of rural residents in the North Okanagan. Two hypotheses were tested to ascertain whether or not there were any significant differences between interested respondents and uninterested respondents with respect to socio-psychological characteristics; and whether or not there were any significant differences between interested participants in adult education and interested non-participants. Data from two hundred and thirty-nine household heads were analysed. There were statistically significant differences between interested and uninterested respondents with respect to twelve psycho-social characteristics. Of the characteristics of interested respondents studied there were significant differences between participants and non-participants with respect to four: including, level of schooling, wife's schooling, social participation and level of living. The findings of this study indicated that interest in continuing education was higher for younger respondents, for those with more years of schooling and those whose wives had completed more years of school. Respondents who expressed interest in further education or training had a higher level of living index and a higher income; they were more active in social organizations and in adult education courses; they were more likely to have been born in Canada outside of the survey area than in the North Okanagan district or in other countries. Interest was higher for farm respondents who had more personal contacts with agricultural extension personnel. Interest in continuing education was lower for respondents who were more alienated, and those who had a negative attitude toward change. It was lower also for those who had been unemployed longer in the last three years and those who had spent fewer years in their present occupation. Expressed interest appears to be one of the measurable characteristics which may be expected to affect the future participation of individuals in adult education. The findings of this study indicated that among those respondents who were interested in continuing education or training, those who had participated in adult education courses were more likely to have had more schooling and their wives to have completed more years of school; were more active in social organizations; and had a higher level of living. Age, schooling and wife's schooling are important factors in all studies of adult education participation. The indications of this study are that the kinds of attitudes or abilities which lead a respondent to earn socially approved membership in the community are also related to participation in adult education. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

This examination of the Okanagan Region is the fifth in the series of regional analyses relating welfare measurements to comprehensive social data. Throughout the study there are comparisons made with two previous studies - the Fraser Valley (No. 2) and Metropolitan Vancouver (No. 3). The Okanagan Region, in contrast to the Fraser Valley and Vancouver areas, which are undergoing rapid population expansion plus urbanization, presents the picture of a largely rural and relatively stable area. The social data are compiled principally from the national censes of 1951 and 1961; the welfare material was collected from the monthly Field Service Reports of the Department of Social Welfare with some additions specially obtained; and both were analyzed particularly for a basic ten-year period. This information was supplemented by data gathered from several other sources within the Okanagan area. The Okanagan constitutes Welfare Region III as administered by the Department of Social Welfare. The Regional boundaries were given consideration in this study, and it is to be noted that common boundaries are accepted by the national census (Division Vl) and the recent Economic Atlas which has attempted to delineate regions for all of Canada. In conformity with these, it is recommended that the Kamloops district, which is neither geographically nor economically a true part of the Okanagan be excluded from the present Welfare Region III, while the Grand Forks area should be included. In any new standardization appropriate adjustments have been made in the welfare and census statistics. In the present study the social data reveals that the Okanagan is undergoing a comparatively slow rate of population growth but that in recent years, in line with marked trends in British Columbia generally, there has been increasing urbanization. A large segment of the population is elderly, a fact which has major welfare implications. Further study of needs and services appropriate for this group is recommended. Welfare measurements clearly show the trend towards high average caseloads, coupled with an abnormally high monthly mileage rate. A re-examination on a regional basis of the number of personnel, both professional and clerical, the distribution of tasks, and the deployment of time, is recommended. Each region is unique, requiring services adapted to the particular needs of the resident population. In this study it is proposed that a Central Regional Registry, much like the community social service index, be instituted. A record of services rendered as well as the service requests could be maintained by the welfare organizations in the region. Research utilizing material from the registry could make a considerable contribution to the planning of needed services in the Okanagan. (It is to be kept in mind that general physical planning, and also junior college planning, is proceeding on a regional basis in the area.) No doubt, changes in both needs and services have taken place since 1961. The present study has aimed at providing a foundation from which further studies of needs in welfare services and associated socio-economic factors, may be pursued in this characteristic section of the province. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Neufeld, Heinrich; Preddy, Iris Gloria; Soiseth, Leonard Osborne / Graduate

This study is a micro-analysis of a particular educational milieu: a history of the development of rural schools and community in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia from 1874 until 1930, focussing mainly on the period from 1920 to 1930. The teacher, or more specifically the female teacher, is the main subject. A series of oral interviews conducted with surviving rural teachers and pupils from the 1920s comprise the primary data. Personal narratives form the core of the text. Also used were the pertinent printed and manuscript records of the Department of Education, penned by teachers, school inspectors and other officials, local histories, the 1931 Census of Canada and photographs. The purpose of the study is two fold. First, it is to delineate what the job of teaching in a rural school in the 1920s entailed. The physical and pedagogical conditions of that work are described. The role and status of the teacher in the local community are also highlighted. Teaching in an isolated community, especially for the novice, was an arduous assignment and one that demanded the acceptance of considerable physical, professional, mental and emotional hardships. The underlying relationship that existed between the individual teacher and the local world of education in rural districts and how the nature of that relationship influenced the quality of teacher experience is a central theme of the study. Social background and up bringing, as well as personal disposition, were found to be key variables determining the extent to which teachers were able successfully to adapt to living and working in a remote rural district. Second, the study examines the social context and meaning of the experience of teaching as work for women. By focussing on how involvement in the profession fitted into the larger structure of the female life course, a more complex, yet clearer, vision emerges of what teaching actually did for women in terms of how they used the profession to accommodate their own personal agendas. For many women their experience as a teacher, albeit brief, played an important, and for some a profound, role in their lives. Despite the strenuous and often frustrating nature of their working and living circumstances many teachers enjoyed their jobs. Motivated by a determination to succeed many regarded their experiences in rural schools as a challenge. They had their sense of self-worth and confidence enhanced by their ability to prove to themselves that they could survive under such adverse conditions. Teaching also afforded women economic independence and relative autonomy and thus expanded their personal and career horizons beyond the traditional domestic roles. Moreover for a substantial number of women teaching was by no means just a prologue to anticipated marriage but rather a life-time commitment. At the same time women's career pathways, unlike that of the majority of their male collegues, were not organised to enhance career aspirations. Women negotiated their work interests with traditional sex role and family expectations. Decisions concerning work were deeply entrenched within, and contingent upon, their changing personal and family circumstances. Home and family obligations, both real and perceived, defined their lives and played a key role in their life planning. Pursuing a "career" as a teacher in the traditional sense was not necessarily always the main priority in women's lives and certainly had little to do with what they viewed as commitment to the job. The study contributes to a fuller understanding of the phenomena of rural schooling and teaching in British Columbia and provides some insights into rural life itself. It also raises important questions as to the meaning of teaching as work to women and the nature of their participation in the workforce. It demonstrates that any evaluation of women's work must be derived from women workers' own perceptions and definitions of work and career.

Planning is the ultimate expression of a community responding to growth and change, shaping its future through a collective set of values, goals and strategies. Over the past four decades planning policies and practices have largely focused on issues related to the growth of urban regions. Given the realms of change that will shape communities over the coming decades, these policies and practices need to reorient themselves away from aggregate notions of growth and towards the relevant agents of change. The goal of this research is to articulate a framework for the investigation of issues that will shape communities over the coming four decades; specifically how demographic change will impact on the future of community housing, land and financial resources. Although it presents one region as a case study (the Central Okanagan Regional District in British Columbia, Canada) the framework is intended to be used by any community or region to evaluate the extent of demographic change and its impact on issues related to community and regional planning. The first finding of the framework shows that over any strategic time horizon planning issues will be related to changes in a population's composition rather than aggregate notions of its growth. It is the patterns of lifecycle and lifestyle change that will shape issues ranging from land uses, housing markets and transportation demand to school enrolment, medical requirements or even funeral services. None of which can be accurately represented by the aggregate size of a region's population, as each are impacted by changes in its underlying composition. The second finding is that it is current residents, rather than new migrants to the region, that will direct changes in the age composition of a population. This leads to the assertion that we have a good approximation of the region's future population in those who are residents today: they will be slightly older, wiser and possibly a little wearier. Finally, this research also calls attention to a substantial lack of information. A lack of information concerning the fundamental processes of community change, and a lack of information regarding the economic, environmental and social costs associated with the location, density and timing of future development. Most importantly, current planning decisions are still largely predicated on aggregate notions of population growth, without sufficient information about the external costs and tradeoffs associated with these decisions. The future quality of life in any region will be directly determined by the degree to which both planning jurisdictions and the general public acknowledge and, more importantly, choose to respond to the challenges presented by change.

This study is a micro-analysis of a particular educational milieu: a history of the development of rural schools and community in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia from 1874 until 1930, focussing mainly on the period from 1920 to 1930. The teacher, or more specifically the female teacher, is the main subject. A series of oral interviews conducted with surviving rural teachers and pupils from the 1920s comprise the primary data. Personal narratives form the core of the text. Also used were the pertinent printed and manuscript records of the Department of Education, penned by teachers, school inspectors and other officials, local histories, the 1931 Census of Canada and photographs. The purpose of the study is two fold. First, it is to delineate what the job of teaching in a rural school in the 1920s entailed. The physical and pedagogical conditions of that work are described. The role and status of the teacher in the local community are also highlighted. Teaching in an isolated community, especially for the novice, was an arduous assignment and one that demanded the acceptance of considerable physical, professional, mental and emotional hardships. The underlying relationship that existed between the individual teacher and the local world of education in rural districts and how the nature of that relationship influenced the quality of teacher experience is a central theme of the study. Social background and up bringing, as well as personal disposition, were found to be key variables determining the extent to which teachers were able successfully to adapt to living and working in a remote rural district. Second, the study examines the social context and meaning of the experience of teaching as work for women. By focussing on how involvement in the profession fitted into the larger structure of the female life course, a more complex, yet clearer, vision emerges of what teaching actually did for women in terms of how they used the profession to accommodate their own personal agendas. For many women their experience as a teacher, albeit brief, played an important, and for some a profound, role in their lives. Despite the strenuous and often frustrating nature of their working and living circumstances many teachers enjoyed their jobs. Motivated by a determination to succeed many regarded their experiences in rural schools as a challenge. They had their sense of self-worth and confidence enhanced by their ability to prove to themselves that they could survive under such adverse conditions. Teaching also afforded women economic independence and relative autonomy and thus expanded their personal and career horizons beyond the traditional domestic roles. Moreover for a substantial number of women teaching was by no means just a prologue to anticipated marriage but rather a life-time commitment. At the same time women's career pathways, unlike that of the majority of their male collegues, were not organised to enhance career aspirations. Women negotiated their work interests with traditional sex role and family expectations. Decisions concerning work were deeply entrenched within, and contingent upon, their changing personal and family circumstances. Home and family obligations, both real and perceived, defined their lives and played a key role in their life planning. Pursuing a "career" as a teacher in the traditional sense was not necessarily always the main priority in women's lives and certainly had little to do with what they viewed as commitment to the job. The study contributes to a fuller understanding of the phenomena of rural schooling and teaching in British Columbia and provides some insights into rural life itself. It also raises important questions as to the meaning of teaching as work to women and the nature of their participation in the workforce. It demonstrates that any evaluation of women's work must be derived from women workers' own perceptions and definitions of work and career. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

Increasing costs associated with the construction of new water supplies support the need to examine alternative measures for solving water supply problems in semi-arid environments. Because irrigation consumes a very large proportion of water supplies in such regions, it has the greatest potential for water saving through more efficient management. Research based on an analysis of the physical processes controlling the movement of water through the soil-plant-atmosphere system leads to the development of an irrigation control model, which could improve the productivity of irrigation water in the Okanagan Valley, B. C. Data from experiments with irrigated alfalfa conducted on the Summerland Research Station are used to test three hypotheses concerning the optimum timing and quantity of irrigation applications. Using the Bowen Ratio approach to examine the fluxes of water and energy to and away from the alfalfa surface during different weather periods, alfalfa crop water requirements (ET) are found to be a function of the latent evaporation from Bellani plate atmometers (E), the maturity of the crop (M) and the prevailing weather type (W). ET = f(E, M, W) Three different weather types significantly influence the relationship between E and ET -- cool and cloudy, partly clear and hot and dry (advective) conditions. The frequency distribution of these weather types is shown to follow a first-order Markov chain model. The optimum timing of irrigations occurs when the soil water content reaches turgor loss point (θ[subscript K]). Using the water balance model and from an examination of the alfalfa rooting distribution, θ[subscript K] is found to be a function of the level of atmospheric demand (ET) and soil water content in the upper two feet of soil (θ[subscript U]) θ[subscript K]= f(ET, θ[subscript U]) Decision rules controlling the depth of irrigation are developed from an analysis of the drainage component (D), which is related to soil water content in the lower root zone before irrigation (θ[subscript LI]) depth of irrigation (I). D = f(θ[subscript LI’] I) The set of decision rules prescribing the timing and quantity of irrigation applications are then incorporated into a "model" irrigation treatment, which is verified to be a more efficient user of irrigation water than present methods used in the Okanagan Valley. Under the conditions of the experiment, savings of at least 20 per cent of present water applications could be achieved without reducing crop yields. The theory of inventory control is used to construct the framework for an irrigation control model (based on the decision rules developed for the "model" treatment), that could be employed to areal units in the study area. The procedure for using Monte Carlo simulation to generate outputs of seasonal crop water use is demonstrated and consequences of these generated outputs on irrigation water allocation both on a regional scale and on the individual farm are discussed. The final chapter examines various implications of the irrigation control model on present Provincial water policy and agricultural economic systems in the Okanagan, with the conclusion that implementation of the efficient control model would require a change in the present attitude and capabilities of the irrigator. This change could be induced by the inclusion of incentives in Provincial water policy and law, such as pricing schedules based on incremental costs, monitoring of water applications, and by a reorganization of existing farm units and irrigation districts. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate