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Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde einer hohen naturwissenschaftlich-mathematischen Fakultät der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität zu Heidelberg.

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Orientador: Yoshitaka Gushikem / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-11T20:31:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Canevari_ThiagodaCruz_M.pdf: 626518 bytes, checksum: a33704384d49a883c4ca32c883b2ad0d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Este trabalho descreve a síntese do óxido misto SiO2/SnO2 nas composições 3%, 8,6% e 12% (% em massa de SnO2) obtido pelo processo sol-gel. As informações sobre a formação do SiO2/SnO2, foram obtidas utilizando as técnicas disponíveis para tal finalidade como área superficial pela técnica de BET, espectroscopia de fluorescência de raios X e difração em pó de raios X. O óxido misto SiO2/SnO2 foi utilizado como substrato para síntese in situ da ftalocianina de cobalto devido ser mecanicamente resistente, possuir alta área superficial e apresentar uma condutividade elétrica alta. A formação da ftalocianina de cobalto no material, SiO2/SnO2/CoPc, foi confirmada utilizando as técnicas de espectroscopia UV-VIS, espectroscopia IV e espectroscopia de fotoelétrons excitados por de raios X (XPS). Sendo assim, o material SiO2/SnO2/CoPc, foi utilizado na construção de eletrodos quimicamente modificados, no qual um eletrodo de pasta de carbono foi preparado para estudar a eletrooxidação do ácido oxálico e um eletrodo de disco rígido prensado foi preparado para estudar a eletrooxidação dos íons nitrito. Os estudos eletroquímicos foram realizados em solução aquosa de KCl 1 mol L utilizando as técnicas de voltametria cíclica, voltametria de pulso diferencial e cronoamperometria / Abstract: This work describes the synthesis on SiO2/SnO2 mixed oxide at compositions 3%, 8,6% and 12% (% in weight of SnO2) obtained sol-gel process. The information above the formation of SiO2/SnO2 were obtained use the available techniques for such objective like area superficial BET technique, ray X fluorescence spectroscopic and ray X diffraction. The SiO2/SnO2 mixed oxide was use like matrix for in situ synthesis cobalt phthalocyanine due be resistant mechanically, hold high superficial area and present high electric conductive. The formation of cobalt phthalocyanine on matrix, SiO2/SnO2/CoPc, was confirm used the techniques UV-Vis spectroscopic, IV spectroscopic and ray X spectroscopic photoelectron excited (XPS). Like this, the material SiO2/SnO2/CoPc was use for construction modified chemically electrodes, be the carbon paste electrode prepared for study the oxalic acid electooxidation and the rigid disc press electrode prepared for study the nitrite ions electooxidation. The electrochemical study were carry out in 1mol L KCl solution use the techniques cyclic voltammetric, differential pulse voltammetric and chronoamperometric / Mestrado / Quimica Inorganica / Mestre em Química

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Zeolites are widely used as environmentally friendly solid catalysts or catalyst supports in the refining and petrochemical industries. ZSM-5 zeolite is composed of a three-dimensional medium pore structure (openings of 5-5.5 Å) with high silica content, high temperature stability and strong acidity making it a well-known and an established catalyst for several petroleum derived chemical processes such as cracking, aromatic alkylation, disproportionation, Methanol-to-Gasoline, isomerisation, etc. Nowadays, the synthesis of ZSM-5 zeolite from silica, alumina sources and structure directing agents (templates) is well known. Its synthesis is possible from fly ash, which is a low cost source of both silica and alumina. Fly ash is an inorganic residue resulting from the combustion of coal in electricity generating plants, consisting mostly of SiO₂ and Al₂O₃. ZSM-5 zeolite has not been synthesised from South African coal fly ash and the literature reports that fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite was synthesised only with tetrapropylammonium (TPA+) as structure directing agent and required an excessive amount of additional silica. The final ZSM-5 product was reported to still contain fly ash mineral phases after synthesis. This prevents the use of fly ash as a ZSM-5 zeolite precursor. Moreover, the synthesis of a high purity ZSM-5 zeolite from fly ash without additional silica has not been yet reported. This study aimed to synthesise high purity ZSM-5 zeolite from South African coal fly ash without additional silica, and with tetrapropylammonium bromide (TPABr), 1,6- hexanediamine (HDA) or 1-propylamine (PA) as structure directing agent. This aim was achieved by first optimising the synthesis of ZSM-5 zeolite from South African coal fly ash based on a formulation reported in the literature with fumed silica and TPABr as additional source of silica and structure directing agent respectively. Thereafter, the obtained optimum conditions were used to synthesise other fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite products by substituting TPABr with HDA or PA. Two routes of treating the as-received fly ash prior to the hydrothermal synthesis were applied in order to improve the quality of the final products or reduce the amount of the fumed silica that was used. The first route consisted of treating the as-received fly ash with concentrated H₂SO₄ in order to remove a certain amount of aluminium and increase the Si/Al in the acid treated fly ash solid residue but also remove some other elements such as Fe, Ca, Mg, and Ti which might have an undesirable effect on the product quality. The acid treated fly ash solid residue was used as ZSM-5 precursor with fumed silica as additional silica source and TPABr, HDA or PA as structure directing agent. The ZSM-5 zeolite products that were synthesised from the as-received fly ash as well as from the H₂SO₄ treated fly ash were treated with oxalic acid solution in order to reduce the aluminium content in the final products. The second route consisted of fusing the as-received fly ash with NaOH and treating the powder fused fly ash extract with oxalic acid solution. The obtained fused and oxalic acid treated fly ash extracts were used as ZSM-5 precursors without additional fumed silica and with TPABr, HDA or PA as structure directing agent. ZSM-5 zeolite was synthesised from the as-received South African coal fly ash not only with the commonly used structure directing agent TPABr but also with two other, lower cost structure directing agents, HDA and PA. The synthesis process did not generate any solid waste as fly ash was used as bulk, which could be a way of valorising South African coal fly ash. However, the final products contained some fly ash mineral phases such as mullite and quartz, and had poor physical and chemical properties compared to a commercial H-ZSM-5 zeolite. The treatment of the as-received fly ash with H₂SO4 resulted in fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite products with better physical and chemical properties than those of ZSM-5 zeolite products that were synthesised from the as-received fly ash. Moreover, the post-synthesis treatment of the fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite products with oxalic acid resulted in an increase in the Si/Al ratio, offering a post-synthesis route to adjust the acidity of the catalysts. However, mullite and quartz phases were still present in the synthesised products. Alternatively, high purity ZSM-5 zeolite was synthesised from the fused and oxalic treated fly ash extracts without additional silica and with TPABr, HDA or PA as structure directing agent. Moreover, these synthesised fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite products had similar physical and chemical properties to the commercial H-ZSM-5 zeolite. The synthesised fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite products were used as solid catalysts in the Methanol-to-Olefins (MTO) and Nazarov reactions. The ZSM-5 zeolite products that were synthesised from the H₂SO4 treated fly ash as well as fused and oxalic treated fly ash were successfully used as solid catalysts in the MTO and Nazarov reactions. The ZSM-5 zeolite products that were synthesised from the H₂SO₄ treated fly ash presented a similar trend in MTO and Nazarov reactions depending on the structure directing agent that was used, and the ZSM-5 zeolite that was synthesised with HDA as structure directing agent had the highest MTO and Nazarov conversion. However these catalysts deactivated more quickly compared to the commercial H-ZSM-5 zeolite. On the other hand, the zeolites that were synthesised from the fused and oxalic acid treated fly ash had a high initial MTO conversion equivalent to the commercial H-ZSM-5 zeolite. However, they deactivated after 5 h of time on stream due to diffusional constraints, because of their large crystal sizes. This study developed novel routes in the synthesis of high value zeolites from fly ash. ZSM-5 zeolite was synthesised from fly ash with structure directing agents other that TPA+ cation and had acceptable Brønsted acidity and high initial conversion in MTO and Nazarov reactions. This has not been yet reported in the literature. Moreover, for the first time a high purity ZSM-5 zeolite was synthesised from fly ash without additional silica and had similar properties to a commercial H-ZSM-5 zeolite. This constituted a breakthrough in the fly ash-based ZSM-5 zeolite synthesis procedure, which will promote the valorisation of fly ash through ZSM-5 synthesis due to avoiding the addition of silica source in the hydrothermal gel and preventing the presence of fly ash mineral phases in the final products. This study can have a significant economic and environmental impact in South Africa if the synthesis process is scaled up as it provides a potentially cheap and innovative way of using waste for making a high value green and acid catalyst, namely ZSM-5 zeolite that has several catalytic applications; and it promotes the valorisation of South African coal fly ash that is considered by many as waste material. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

This research was undertaken for the purpose of developing a process for producing citric and gluconic acids from plantation molasses. There is an evident need for such a process. At the present time, these acids are being produced by processes in which refined sugar is the principal raw material. If molasses could be used in place of refined sugar, the cost of raw materials would be reduced by approximately ninety percent. In addition, a waste product would be utilized. The scope of this problem is very broad. Its solution will involve the solving of many problems of widely varying natures. In this work it is the aim of the writer to survey the entire field, touching lightly on each of its various phases, rather than to attempt to work out the complete solution of any particular phase of the problem. Since this is the initial research such a course of action seems prudent. It would be useless to solve one phase of the problem without making certain that some other one does not present a serious barrier to the process as a whole. Also, it is only by doing this survey work that the relative importance of the various problems can be determined. In order that he may be acquainted with the economic aspects of the problem, the reader should have some knowledge of the uses of the acids to be produced. The uses of citric acid are well known and need not be discussed here. Gluconic acid, however, has only recently become of any commercial importance. A brief discussion of some of its possible uses will be in order. Many of the uses of gluconic acid are based on its ability to form inner anhydrides, known as lactones, which will regenerate gluconic acid when dissolved in water. The rate of formation of the acid from the lactone may be controlled within certain limits by varying the conditions of temperature and concentration. This property makes it desirable to use gluconic lactone in fruit powders for jelly making, in baking powders, in the manufacture of cell concrete and insulating brick, and, in short, wherever the slow and controllable formation of an acid is wanted. Gluconates are used in the preparation of homogeneous pastes such as dentifrices. Calcium and magnesium gluconates are quite satisfactory polishing agents. The gluconate is the most satisfactory calcium salt for use in medicine, being assimilable, practically tasteless, and non-irritating to tissues. It may be administered by the mouth or by subcutaneous injection. A colloidal suspension of hydrated aluminum oxide in gluconic acid finds use in tanning, furnishing a white, flexible, and durable leather, which is not leached out or stiffened by prolonged treatment with hot water.

Este trabalho apresenta a preparação e caracterização de eletrodos de óxidos do tipo ânodos dimensionalmente estáveis (ADE) de composição nominal Ti/Ru0,3Ti0,7O2, modificados pela adição de metais em sua superfície. A introdução de um metal modulador permitiu alterar de forma significativa o comportamento eletroquímico de todo o recobrimento. A modificação do ADE foi realizada através de eletrodeposição de Pt e PbO2 e de deposição química de catalisadores nanodivididos (Pt e Pt-Ni). O objetivo desta preparação foi modular as propriedades dos ânodos visando melhorar as propriedades eletrocatalíticas e a resistência mecânica e com isto, introduzir uma nova classe de materiais para aplicá-los na eletrooxidação de formaldeído, acetaldeído e ácido oxálico. Para caracterizar os eletrodos foram utilizadas as técnicas de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios X (EDX), voltametria cíclica (VC), eletrólises com acompanhamento por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), espectrometria de massas eletroquímica diferencial (DEMS). Os experimentos com DEMS foram realizados na Universidade de Poitiers, França. As micrografias e as análises de EDX mostraram que o rutênio concentra-se em pequenas ?ilhas? na camada de óxidos e a modificação com platina, eletrodepositada ou depositada quimicamente, ocorre preferencialmente nas regiões ricas em rutênio. O eletrodepósito de PbO2 apresentou uma distribuição mais uniforme sobre toda a camada de óxido. As eletrólises foram realizadas aplicando um programa de pulsos de potenciais. Os resultados mostraram que a eficiência para formação do produto mais oxidado (CO2) está intimamente ligada à quantidade e distribuição da platina adicionada na superfície do ADE. Os eletrodos mais eficientes foram os de composições nominais: Ti/ADE modificado com eletrodeposição de Pt (100 ?g cm-2) e Ti/ADE modificado com deposição química do catalisador nanodividido de Pt-Ni (1:1) (60 ?g cm-2). Estes resultados foram confirmados pelos experimentos utilizando DEMS. O eletrodo Ti/ADE modificado com eletrodeposição de PbO2 (100 ?g cm-2) apresentou uma melhora na eficiência eletrocatalítica em relação ao ADE, porém inferior aos eletrodos modificados com platina. O desempenho do ADE na oxidação das pequenas moléculas orgânicas foi estudado em comparação com um eletrodo de platina eletrodepositada diretamente na placa de titânio. Os resultados de eletrólise mostraram que o ADE não funciona somente como um substrato inerte e sim auxilia na reação de oxidação, desempenhando um importante papel na eficiência catalítica total destes materiais. / This work presents the preparation and characterization of dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) of nominal composition Ti/Ru0.3Ti0.7O2, modified by the addition of metals to their surface. The introduction of the modulator metal allowed us to change the coating of the electrochemical behavior in a significant way. The DSAâ surface was modified by electrodeposition of Pt and PbO2, and chemical deposition of highly nanodispersive supported catalysts (Pt and Pt-Ni). The objective of this preparation was to modulate the anode properties in order to enhance the electrocatalytic properties and mechanical resistance of these materials. This new class of materials was applied in the electrooxidadtion of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and oxalic acid. The electrode characterization was carried out by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), cyclic voltammetry (CV), long-term electrolysis followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) which was performed at the University of Poitiers, France. The micrographs and EDS analyses showed that the ruthenium is concentrated in small ?islands? in the oxide layer, and the modification with platinum, either electrodeposited or chemically deposited, occurs preferable over the ruthenium-rich regions. The PbO2 electrodeposit was more uniformly distributed along the oxide layer. Bulk electrolysis experiments were carried out applying a potentiostatic program. The efficiency toward the formation of the more oxidized compound (CO2) is related with the amount and distribution of the platinum deposited on the DSAâ surface. The most efficient materials were: Ti/ADE modified with electrodeposited Pt (100 ?g cm-2) and Ti/ADE modified with chemically deposited Pt-Ni (1:1) (60 ?g cm-2). Through the DEMS experiments these results were confirmed. The DSAâ modified with PbO2 (100 ?g cm-2) was more efficient than the bare DSAâ. However, the amount of CO2 obtained with the former electrode is still lower than that obtained with the platinum-modified ones. The role of DSAâ on the direct activation of the oxidation of small organic molecules was studied applying an electrode containing the platinum directly electrodeposited over the titanium. The bulk electrolysis results showed that DSAâ is not just an inert substrate since it does play an important role in the overall efficiency of these materials.