Abstract The Generalized Predictive Controller in transfer function representation is proposed for the cascade control task. The recommended cascade GPC (CGPC) applies one predictor and one cost function that results in several advantageous features: The disturbance regulations of the inner and the outer loops can be totally decoupled; The inner disturbance regulation is well damped, the typical overshoot of the traditional cascade control structure is avoided; The robustness properties of the inner and the outer loops can be designed separately; The anti-windup properties of the CGPC are exactly as perfect as in the case of the simple SISO GPC. The typical problem of the saturation in the inner loop, resulting in modeling error for the outer loop, is prevented. The CGPC was applied as the oxygen controller of a pilot fluidized bed boiler. The investigation is based on simulation experiments and on experiments on a pilot scale boiler. In another simulation experiment, the CGPC was applied as the temperature controller of at a steam superheater stage. The results of the experiments well illustrated the power of the proposed cascade control algorithm.

Nitrogen removal from wastewater has been exstensively addressed by scientific literature in recent years; one of the most widely implemented technologies consists of the combination of partial nitritation and anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX). Compared to traditional nitrification and denitrification techniques such solution eliminates the requirement for an external carbon source and allows for a reduced production of excess sludge; furthermore, it brings down the costs associated to aeration by 60-90% and the emissions of CO2 by 90%. Similar techniques can turn out to be particularly interesting when stringent environmental regulations have to be met. At present, most of the dedicated research dwells on wastewater at high temperatures, high nitrogen loads and low organic content, as it is typical of sidestream effluents; this project, instead, is focused on mainstream wastewater, characterized by lower temperatures and nitrogen content, but higher COD values. At the center of the thesis is the application of a one-stage reactor treating synthetic mainstream municipal wastewater. The chosen approach consisted in maintaining low DO values, allowing for both for the establishment of a proper reaction environment and for the out-selection of nitrite oxidizers; granular biomass was employed for the experiment, aiming at effective biomass retention. The HRT value was gradually decreased, with a minimum at 6 hours. Resulting nitrogen removal rates proved to be satisfactory, with a maximum TN removal efficiency of 54%. Retention of biomass was also positively enhanced throughout the experiment, and yielded a final SRT value of 15.6 days. The whole process was then inserted into a more complete framework, accounting for possible energetic optimizations of similar treatment plants. Employing COD fractionation as a primary step paves the way for anaerobic digestion side processes, which can produce methane and ultimately provide energy for the main nitrogen removal step. Therefore, envisioning energy-sufficient water treatment processes seems a more and more feasible and realistic possibility.

a gestió dels residus nuclears de vida llarga i alta activitat és una de les principals preocupacions al voltant de l’energia nuclear. En el marc del projecte europeu IP EUROTRANS (EURATOM 6th Framework Programme) i dels projectes espanyols COMETA (ENE2005-08611-C02-02) i COPLOGEN (ENE2009-14223-C02-02) s’ha proposat utilitzar reactors ADS (Accelerator Driven Systems) per a transmutar aquest tipus de residus. En aquest tipus de residus, protons d’alta energia, col•lisionarien amb el blanc d’espal•lació produint neutrons ràpids que serien capaços de transmutar elements radioactius de vida llarga en altres de vida curta. En aquests reactors, es proposa utilitzar l’eutèctic plom - bismut (44.5% Pb – 55.5 % Bi) com a refrigerant degut al seu punt de fusió baix i a què pot ser utilitzat com a blanc d’espal•lació per a produir neutrons ràpids. No obstant, aquest aliatge és altament corrosiu dels materials estructurals, especialment els acers inoxidables. Per això es fa necessària una capa d’òxid de passivació que els protegeixi. En aquest entorn, s’haurà de controlar l’oxigen del medi, que ha ser suficient per a formar la capa de passivació però inferior al de formació de PbO. Ha de tenir-se en compte que el plom - bismut, en les condicions d’operació, serà un líquid en moviment i que no convé tenir partícules sòlides d’òxid que pugin erosionar o bloquejar parts del reactor. Amb l’objectiu de poder mesurar pressions parcials d’oxigen de l’ordre de 10-20 bar, en aquesta Tesi Doctoral, es proposa utilitzar sensors potenciomètrics d’oxigen amb electròlit sòlid de ZrO2 dopat amb Y2O3, YSZ, conductor del ió O2-. Per al seu ús en circuits experimentals és necessari establir un mètode de calibratge de sensors durant la seva operació i desenvolupar prototips que puguin ser usats en condicions dinàmiques. Per altra banda, degut a què a temperatures baixes (T<400ºC) l’ electròlit sòlid utilitzat perd la seva capacitat conductora d’oxigen s’han adaptat els sensors per a la seva possible utilització a temperatures de l’ordre de 300ºC. Per a estudiar la corrosió del material estructural i controlar la química de l’eutèctic en aquests reactors s’ha determinat la solubilitat i la difusió d’oxigen en el metall fos i la influència d’ impureses metàl•liques (In, Ni, Cr i Fe) en la solubilitat d’oxigen en plom - bismut. A més, com que centres d’investigació de diversos països participen en el projecte IP EUROTRANS, s’ha comparat la resposta de dos sensors d’oxigen fabricats per diferents laboratoris, amb diferent sistema de referència i fabricació de l’electròlit sòlid en les mateixes condicions experimentals. / La gestión de los residuos nucleares de vida larga y alta actividad es una de las mayores preocupaciones acerca de la energía nuclear. En el marco del proyecto europeo IP EUROTRANS (EURATOM 6th Framework Programme) y de los proyectos españoles COMETA (ENE2005-08611-C02-02) y COPLOGEN (ENE2009-14223-C02-02) se ha propuesto utilizar reactores ADS (Accelerator Driven Systems) para transmutar este tipo de residuos. En estos reactores, protones de alta energía colisionarían con el blanco de espalación produciendo neutrones rápidos que, a su vez, serían capaces de transmutar elementos radioactivos de vida larga en otros de vida corta. En estos reactores, se propone usar el eutéctico plomo-bismuto (44.5 % Pb – 55.5 % Bi) como refrigerante debido a su bajo punto de fusión y a que puede ser usado como blanco de espalación para producir neutrones rápidos. No obstante, esta aleación es altamente corrosiva de los materiales estructurales, especialmente los aceros inoxidables. Por ello, se hace necesaria una capa de óxido de pasivación que los proteja. En este entorno, se deberá controlar el oxígeno del medio, que tiene que ser suficiente para formar la capa de pasivación pero inferior al de formación de PbO. Debe tenerse en cuenta que el plomo-bismuto, en las condiciones de operación, será un líquido en movimiento y no conviene tener partículas sólidas de óxido que puedan erosionar o bloquear partes del reactor. Con el objetivo de poder medir presiones parciales de oxígeno del orden de 10-20 bar, en esta Tesis Doctoral, se propone utilizar sensores potenciométricos de oxígeno con electrolito sólido de ZrO2 dopado con Y2O3, YSZ, conductor del ión O2-. Para su uso en circuitos experimentales es necesario establecer un método de calibración de sensores durante su operación y desarrollar prototipos que puedan ser usados en condiciones dinámicas. Por otro lado, debido a que a temperaturas bajas (T<400ºC) el electrolito sólido utilizado pierde su capacidad conductora de oxígeno se han adaptado los sensores para su posible utilización a temperaturas del orden de 300ºC. Para estudiar la corrosión del material estructural y controlar la química del eutéctico en estos reactores se ha determinado la solubilidad y la difusión de oxígeno en el metal fundido y la influencia de impurezas metálicas (In, Ni, Cr y Fe) en la solubilidad de oxígeno en el plomo-bismuto. Además, dado que centros de investigación de diversos países participan en el proyecto IP EUROTRANS se ha comparado la respuesta de dos sensores de oxígeno fabricados por distintos laboratorios, con diferente sistema de referencia y fabricación del electrolito sólido en las mismas condiciones experimentales. / The management of long-lived and high activity nuclear waste is one of the major concerns related with nuclear energy. In the framework of the European Project IP EUROTRANS (EURATOM 6th Framework Program) and Spanish Projects COMETA (ENE2005-08611-C02-02) and COPLOGEN (ENE2009-14223-C02-02), accelerator driven system (ADS) reactors have been proposed for transmutating the long-lived nuclear waste. In this type of reactors, protons of high energy collide with a spallation target and fast neutrons are produced. These fast neutrons, in turn, can be used in subcritical reactors, where radioactive elements of long life can be transmuted to elements of short life. Lead – bismuth eutectic alloy, LBE. (44.5% Pb – 55.5% Bi) is proposed as a coolant for ADS reactors. The advantages of using this alloy are its low melting point and that it can also be used as spallation target for producing fast neutrons. However, this alloy is highly corrosive. For this reason, it is important to maintain a passivation layer on the structural material. In this type of reactors molten LBE is flowing then solid particles could erode or block parts of the circuit. In order to maintain this passivation layer avoiding PbO formation, it is necessary controlling and monitoring the oxygen content in LBE between these two limits. In this work, a potentiometric oxygen sensor with ZrO2 / Y2O3 solid electrolyte (YSZ) is used to measure oxygen partial pressure inside LBE. In order to improve the reliability of these sensors it is necessary to improve its design in order to use them in experimental circuits under dynamic conditions and to develop a method for checking its condition during operation. On the other hand, at low temperatures (T<400ºC), YSZ loses its ionic conductivity, so sensors have been adapted to be used at temperatures around 300ºC In order to study structural material corrosion and to control eutectic chemistry in this type of reactors, solubility and diffusivity of oxygen in the molten metal have been determined. The effect of metallic impurities (In, Fe, Cr, Ni) in oxygen solubility in lead bismuth is also studied. Furthermore, in order to compare sensors from different institutions in the framework of the European project, two prototypes of oxygen sensors have been studied under same stagnant conditions. One of the sensors was proposed by KIT and the second one was proposed by IQS. Different reference systems and YSZ suppliers have been compared.