Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / No abstract available.

Les acteurs neuroendocriniens régulant la physiologie des Lophotrochozoaires, groupe frère des Ecdysozoaires parmi les Protostomiens, demeurent peu connus. Grâce à l’émergence récente de ressources génomiques, transcriptomiques et peptidomiques chez l’huître creuse Crassostrea gigas, l’étude des couples ligand(s)/récepteur(s) régulant les fonctions physiologiques est désormais facilitée. Ainsi, par une approche d’endocrinologie inverse consistant à éprouver l’activité d’un panel de ligands potentiels, plusieurs récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPGs), jusqu’alors orphelins ont pu être caractérisés sur le plan fonctionnel. Trois voies de signalisation ont été étudiées : la voie de type cholécystokinine/sulfakinine (CCK/SK) la voie de type calcitonine (CT) et la voie de type dopamine (DA). Grâce à des tests fonctionnels, deux neuropeptides et deux récepteurs de type CCK/SK ont pu être caractérisés. Des tests d’activité biologique in vitro et des expériences de conditionnement alimentaire ont montré la potentielle implication de ces couples dans la régulation de la digestion et de la satiété chez l’huître. Par ailleurs, deux couples neuropeptide/récepteur de type CT ont été caractérisés montrant, à l’image de leurs homologues chez les vertébrés, leur possible rôle dans la régulation hydrique ou ionique. D’autre part, un récepteur activé de manière spécifique par la dopamine et la tyramine a été caractérisé. Ce système de signalisation semble être impliqué dans la médiation du stress et intervenir dans les processus régulateurs de la reproduction au niveau de la gonade. Ainsi, les différents résultats obtenus au cours de ces travaux ont permis d’identifier des couples ligands/récepteurs d’huître homologues de systèmes de signalisation présents chez les Ecdysozoaires et les vertébrés confirmant l’origine de ces systèmes neuroendocriniens depuis l’ancêtre commun des Bilatériens. Les résultats obtenus ont également permis de mieux comprendre comment l’huître intègre les paramètres du milieu et donc s’acclimate aux différentes contraintes environnementales. / The neuroendocrine regulators of the physiology of Lophotrochozoa, the sister clade of Ecdysozoa among Protostoma, remain poorly understood. Thanks to the recent emergence of genomic, transcriptomic and peptidomic resources in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, the functional characterization of ligand/receptor pairs regulating a diversity of physiological functions has been facilitated. Using a reverse endocrinology approach, a number of orphan G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) have been functionally characterized. Three signalling systems have been studied in the oyster: The cholecystokinin/sulfakinin (CCK/SK), the calcitonin (CT) and the dopamine (DA) signalling systems. Two CCK/SK receptors and ligands have been characterized. In vitro bioassays and feeding conditions suggested the potential involvement of this signalling system in the regulation of digestion and satiety. Besides, two couples of CT-type peptides and receptors have been characterized showing, as for their vertebrate counterparts, their possible role in the regulation of water and ion balance. A receptor specifically activated by dopamine and by tyramine has also been characterized. This signalling system appeared to be implicated in the mediation of stress and to play a role in the regulatory processes of reproduction in the gonads. This study allowed the characterization in the oyster of ligand receptor pairs homolog to known signalling systems present in Ecdysozoa and vertebrates, thus confirming the origin of these neuroendocrine systems in the common ancestor of Bilateria. The results of this study also contributed to understand how the oyster integrates external parameters and adapts to various environmental constrains.

Marine environments are under constant pressure from anthropogenic pollution. Chemical pollutants are introduced into the aquatic environment through waste disposal, sewage, land runoff and environmental exploitation (harbours, fisheries, tourism) leading to disastrous effects on the marine wildlife. Developmental malformations, reproduction failure including sex changes and high death rates are commonly observed in aquatic animal populations around the world. Unfortunately, the underlying molecular mechanisms of these pollution effects, in particular for marine invertebrate species, are often unknown. One proposed mechanism through which environmental pollution affects wildlife, is the disruption of nuclear receptors (NRs), ligand-binding transcription factors in animals. Environmental pollutants can directly interact with nuclear receptors, inducing incorrect signals for gene expression and subsequently disrupt developmental and physiological processes. Elucidation of the exact mechanism in invertebrates, however, is sparse due to limited understanding of invertebrate endocrinology and molecular regulatory mechanisms. Here, I have investigated the presence, expression and function of NRs in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, and explored their interrelation with known environmental pollutants. Using a suite of molecular techniques and bioinformatics tools I demonstrate that the Pacific oyster possesses a large variety of NR homologs (43 NRs), which display individual expression profiles during embryo/larval development and supposedly fulfil distinct functions in developmental and physiological processes. Functional studies on a small subset of oyster NRs provided evidence for their ability to regulate gene expression, including interactions with DNA, other NRs or small molecules (ligand-binding). Oyster receptors also show a high likeliness to be disrupted by environmental pollutants. Computational docking showed that the retinoid X receptor ortholog, CgRXR, is able to bind and be activated by 9-cis retinoic acid and by the well-known environmental contaminant tributyltin. A potential interaction between tributyltin and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ortholog CgPPAR has also been found. In addition, exposure of oyster embryos to retinoic acids and tributyltin resulted in shell deformations and developmental failure. In contrast, computer modelling of another putative target for pollutants, the retinoic acid receptor ortholog CgRAR, did not indicate interactions with common retinoic acids, supporting a recently developed theory of loss of retinoid binding in molluscan RARs. Sequence analyses revealed six residues in the receptor sequence, which prevent the successful interaction with retinoid ligands. In conclusion, this investigative work aids the understanding of fundamental processes in invertebrates, such as gene expression and endocrinology, as well as further understanding and prediction of effects of environmental pollutants on marine invertebrates.

Norovirus (NoV) is a significant cause of gastroenteritis globally, and the consumption of oysters is frequently linked to outbreaks. Depuration is the principle means employed to reduce levels of potentially harmful agents or toxins in shellfish. The aim of this thesis is to construct mathematical models which can describe the depuration dynamics of water-borne pathogens, and specifically examine the dynamics of NoV during depuration for a population shellfish. Legislation is currently under consideration within the EU by the Directorate-General for Health and Consumers (DG SANCO) to limit the maximum level of NoV that consumers are exposed to via this route. Therefore it is important to the utility of the thesis that any models constructed should incorporate control measures which could be used to implement minimum NoV levels. Doing so allowed calculation of minimum depuration times that would be required to adhere to the control measures incorporated into the models. In addition to modelling the impact on pathogens during the depuration, we wished to gain some insight into how the variability, and not just the mean levels, of water-borne pathogens can be as important with respect to the length of depuration required to minimise any food safety risks to the consumer. This proved difficult in the absence of any data sets that can be used to calculate variability measures, as little data is currently available to inform these values for NoV. However, our modelling techniques were able to calculate an upper limit on the variability of water-borne pathogens that can be well approximated by lognormal distributions. Finally we construct a model which provided linkage between the depuration process and the accretion of pathogens by shellfish while still within farming waters. This model proposed that the pulses of untreated waste waters released by sewage treatment works due to high levels of rainfall would be transmitted into shellfish whilst filter-feeding.