[Typescript] Includes bibliography.

Forest plantations, widely grown for wood production, involve the selective promotion of single tree species, or replacement of natural species by exotic tree species. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) has been chosen for reforestation of infertile sandy soils in southeast Queensland, Australia. These exotic pine plantations minimise soil and water losses, and are important scientific study sites. The soil environment of these plantations, though devoid of sufficient nutrients, oxygen and other factors, harbours innumerable bacteria that may play a crucial role in maintaining soil quality and ecosystem functions. These soil microorganisms also have the potential for use as sensitive biological indicators to reflect environmental changes. It is therefore essential to understand the interrelationships amongst bacterial communities and their environment by assessing their structural and functional diversity, and their responses to disturbances. The microbial community of an exotic pine plantation of subtropical Australia was analysed by both culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. In this study, a leaf litter-soil core sample (25 cm x 40 cm) was collected from a 22-year-old slash pine plantation in southeast Queensland, Australia in October, 2003. The core sample was divided into three fractions, namely, L layer leaf litter, F layer leaf litter, and forest soil 0-10 cm. In the culture-independent study, a modified DNA extraction and purification method was used to obtain highly purified high-molecular-weight DNA. This DNA was successfully used to amplify bacterial 16S rRNA genes with universal primers Fd1 and R6, to produce products of approximately 1500 bp. PCRamplified 16S rRNA genes were subsequently cloned and a total of 194 clones from leaf litter and soil were partially sequenced (about 510 bp). The 16S rRNA gene sequences were analysed and grouped into several phylogroups (the sequences with a similarity value ¡Ý 98 % were regarded as phylogenetically similar and grouped into one phylogroup). Sequencing representatives (¡Ö 1400 nucleotides) from each phylogenetic group confirmed that five bacterial phyla were represented in the forest soil clone library. Phylum Acidobacterium was the most abundant phylogenetic group in terms of the number of clones and accounted for 42 % of all examined soil clones. The Verrucomicrobiales and Proteobacteria were the second and third most abundant phylogenetic groups found in the soil clone libraries, accounting for 12 % and 11 % of the soil clones, respectively. About 8 % of all examined soil clones were Planctomycetes and 27 % of soil clones were phylogenetically unidentified. The large amount of unclassified clone sequences could imply that novel groups of bacteria were present in the forest soil. When the two fractions of leaf litter clone libraries were compared, Firmicutes was the only phylum represented in the L layer leaf litter clone library. Similarly, Firmicutes dominated the F layer leaf litter (79 % of the library), was followed by Proteobacteria (21 %). For the culture-dependent study, a total of 21 isolates which were considered to represent 334 colonies from the leaf litter and forest soil were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, indicating that L layer leaf litter and F layer leaf litter were dominated by Firmicutes (48 %) and Proteobacteria (69 %) respectively, and 91 % of the isolates from the forest soil were Firmicutes. Using culture-independent methods, Actinobacteria appeared to be absent from the L and F layer leaf litter and forest soil samples. The results implied that either the nucleic acids of Actinobacteria were difficult to extract or Actinobacteria were over represented in the culture-dependent examinations. Phylum Acidobacteria appeared to be numerically dominant and active members in most soils. However, only one named species had been isolated from an acid mine drainage site and reported by Kishimoto and Tano (1987). Analysis by culture-dependent methods revealed a different bacterial diversity, compared to the bacterial diversity from the 16S rRNA gene clone sequences. The most significant result was the observation that, as revealed by both culture-dependent and culture-independent methods, the bacterial diversity presented in the leaf litter was greatly different from the community of the soil. During the culture-dependent bacterial diversity study, four novel strains were isolated from the forest soil and leaf litter samples and complete characterisations of these novel strains were carried out. Reports on the descriptions of Bacillus decisifrondis strain E5HC-32T from forest soil and Frondicola australicus strain E1HC-02T from L layer leaf litter have been published (appendix). The information provided by assessing the microbial communities in different fractions of leaf litter and forest soil improves our understanding of the phylogenetic relationship between soil and leaf litter. It is suggested, in this study, to perform both culture-dependent and culture-independent methods to characterise the bacterial structure and diversity in forest litter and soil samples, particularly in response to different forest management practices and global change. This study also provides the basis for further functional studies of the forest soil and leaf litter of exotic pine plantation in subtropical Australia.

Needle-to-stem unit rate (NESTUR) is a stem growth index of conifer seedling trees that measures the efficiency of stemwood production per unit of needle growth. Five experiments were carried out in this thesis using progenies of two unrelated full-sib radiata pine crosses. The initial experiment (experiment 1) applied the bulked segregant analysis technique to determine whether RAPD analysis could be successfully extended to the development of molecular markers for NESTUR in radiata pine. The NESTUR values of 174 progenies of the full-sib family 12038 x 10946 were determined. Based on the genotypic analysis of the individuals, two quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling NESTUR were identified at ANOVA P-levels of 0.01-0.001. An absence of RAPD fragment markers generated by primers OPE-06 and OPA-10 was associated with low NESTUR values, while primer UBC-333 generated a 550 bp band that was associated with high NESTUR values. Linkage to components of NESTUR (increments in stem diameter and stem volume) was demonstrated for one of the QTL, while the other was unique to NESTUR, and not shared with the components. There was a significant interaction between the two QTLs. Presence of OPA-101200 locus appeared to inhibit expression of the QTL linked to UBC-333 [subscript 550]. ¶ To further analyse the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling NESTUR, a linkage map was constructed from RAPD markers segregating in 93 haploid progeny of another full sib cross (30040 x 80121) (experiment 2). Two hundred and sixty-two (262) markers were mapped to 14 linkage groups of at least 7 markers, ranging in size from 39 to 183 cM. The 14 linkage groups covered approximately 1511 cM of genetic map distance. ¶ In experiment 3, the linkage map was used to map QTLs controlling NESTUR, as well as increments in seedling stem diameter, volume, and height and needle volume. Altogether, five putative QTLs were detected for NESTUR, with explained variation ranging from 9 to 22%. Of the five QTLs detected, 3 were coincidental with those for stem growth in height, diameter and volume. The two QTL positions that were unique to NESTUR were flanked by QTLs for the component traits. Together, effects of the five QTLs explained 48% of the total phenotypic variation for NESTUR. ¶ Ability of identified markers to predict the phenotype and seedlings with growth potential was assessed in the cross 30040 x 80121, using six RAPD markers associated with NESTUR at ANOVA P-levels of 0.01-0.001 (experiment 4). The correlation between observed NESTUR and predicted values was 0.70. Differences in observed vs. predicted values were not large and did not indicate serious misclassifications, such as classification of an upper ranking individual into the lower group, or vice versa. ¶ Over a two-year growth period, the ability of NESTUR to predict stem growth was strongly affected by seedling age. In contrast, markers linked to NESTUR showed a consistent ability to predict stem growth, irrespective of seedling age. Compared with the top 1% of the original population, seedlings selected for their genotypic values showed a higher stem volume growth of 103% in the first year, and 76% in the second year. ¶ The expression of QTLs for stem volume, stem diameter, height, number of branches, number of whorls, and branches/whorl were compared at 5, 12, and 24 months of age. Two QTLs detected for height showed contrasting expression over two years, one was gradually reduced from LOD of 2.70 to 0.43 and the other increased from 1.12 to 2.45. Compared with the pattern observed for height, LOD scan profiles for diameter and volume showed less temporal change of peaks, suggesting that the genetic control for height growth is probably more unstable than that of diameter. QTLs controlling the phenotype at the time of measurement (ie the final phenotype) showed similar magnitude of effects on that trait's respective increments (or growth rate).

<p>For papermakers, an understanding of the development of strength properties in the paper is of uttermost importance. Strong papers are desirable both in the traditional paper industry as well as in new fields of application, such as fibre-based packaging and light-weight building material. In this study, the effects of adding abaca (Musa textilis) as a reinforcement fibre for softwood pulp was investigated. Moreover, the LB Multilayer Handsheet Former for the production of stratified sheets was evaluated and used to study the effects of placing selected fibres in separate layers, rather than by making homogeneous sheets from a mixture of the pulps.</p><p>Handsheets of a softwood sulphate pulp with the addition of abaca fibres were made in a conventional sheet former. It was seen that the addition of abaca fibres can increase the tearing resistance, fracture toughness, folding endurance and air permeance. Tensile strength, tensile stiffness and tensile energy absorption, however, decreased somewhat.</p><p>It was shown that the LB Multilayer Handsheet Former is suitable for studying the effects of stratification of paper. The sheet former produces sheets with good formation and the variation of paper properties of the sheets is retained at a fairly constant level when the number of layers in the stratified sheets is increased. The uniformity of the sheets produced in the LB Multilayer Handsheet Former are generally at the same level as of those produced in conventional sheet formers.</p><p>Homogeneous and stratified sheets were produced in the LB Multilayer Handsheet Former and it was found that by stratifying a sheet, so that pulp with a high tear index and pulp with a high tensile index are placed in separate layers, it was possible to increase the tear index by approximately 25%, while the tensile index was decreased by 10-20%.</p>

This dissertation describes arthropod responses to and effects on decay processes in ponderosa pine, a dominant forest canopy tree in northern California. We used both descriptive and experimental field techniques to establish how arthropod assemblages depend on and are important to the disintegration of woody structures in forests of this type. The first study used pitfall traps placed within and on the outsides of fallen, large old ponderosa pine trees to establish the effects of microenvironments created during tree death. We studied the internal and external structures of fallen trees as well as the forest floor in canopy gaps and in the surrounding undisturbed forest. Five trees were surveyed, representing a decay sequence from newly dead and with distinct canopy gap, to well-decayed with recovering canopy. Arthropod assemblages were distinct among the different microenvironments, but were less so with increasing tree/gap age. Differences between tree and soil faunae decreased with increasing decay, as did the differences between gap and non-gap catches from the forest floor. The second study used experimental exclusion techniques to examine how longitudinal (bark beetle) and transverse (woodboring) insect colonists could influence rates of mass loss and carbon respiration from young, dead ponderosa pine. We found that both groups enhanced the prevalence of staining fungi in the sapwood, which in turn was negatively related to the degree of structural failure in the sapwood, associated with decay fungi. Carbon respiration was positively related to sapwood structural failure and we believe that the two insect groups act in concert to suppress wood decomposition in this system. This is contrary to prevailing wisdom among forest practitioners who have suspected that decay and insect activity are positively correlated, but in agreement with laboratory studies showing antagonism between stain and decay fungi. Lastly, we observed that neither forest harvesting nor fire had strong effects on the development of exemplar taxa from decay communities in ponderosa pine two years post-treatment. Though time since treatment did affect all functional groups inside of logs, only undisturbed old-growth treatments showed a reduced variability in composition, leading us to suspect effects to emerge at longer time intervals. / Graduation date: 2004

The main goal of this thesis was to improve our understanding of the long-term effects of establishment treatments and climate change on lodgepole pine and white spruce growth in the western boreal forests. My dissertation also investigated the combined effects of climate and competition on white spruce and trembling aspen growth in boreal mixtures. In the first part of the thesis I evaluated the effects of site preparation treatments on growth of lodgepole pine and white spruce in north-eastern British Columbia. Results indicate that mechanical site preparation can provide yield gains of up-to 10 percent for pine and spruce at 60 and 80 years, respectively. These stands are showing a Type 1 growth response which implies that the treatment effect will eventually cease 90-100 years after planting. In the second part of the thesis I explored pine and spruce growth in relation to past climate and site preparation. Results indicate that up-to 45% and 37% of the respective variation in spruce and pine growth can be explained by selected climatic variables. Future projections indicated that height growth of young pine plantations in the sub-boreal zone could benefit (in the short term) from longer growing seasons by up-to 12% on untreated stands. Untreated young spruce plantations in the boreal zone may suffer height growth decreases of up-to 10% due to increased drought-stress. Vegetation control and mechanical site preparation treatments appear to mitigate effects of climate change to some extent. In the third part of the thesis I explored the combined effects of climate and trembling aspen competition on spruce and aspen growth using data from a long-term study in the boreal zone. Results indicate that climate variables and initial size of the tree can account for significant portions of the annual growth of spruce. Including an estimate of aspen competition in the equations improved the predictive ability of these models. Evidence of the inter-annual variability in aspen competitiveness on spruce and aspen growth indicates that the stress-gradient hypothesis can be applied in boreal mixedwood forests. / Forest Biology and Management

Ectomycorrhizas generally improve seedling mineral nutrition and growth, so I hypothesized that decline of the Florida native pine variety Pinus elliottii var. densa Little & Dorman is related to deficiency of appropriate ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi in the pine's native flatwoods. At Archbold Biological Station I examined how quickly ECM fungi colonize P. elliottii var. densa seedlings and I compared the effect of local absence versus presence of adult pines on ECM colonization and pine seedling performance. Under controlled greenhouse conditions, I investigated how a wide range of ECM colonization and spread of extraradical mycelium throughout a large volume of relatively infertile, flatwoods soil enhance the mineral nutrition and growth of pine seedlings. In a field bioassay, I transplanted two-month-old pine seedlings to three flatwoods sites with low (4 pines/400 square m), medium (9 pines/400 square m), and high (19 pines/400 square m) adult pine densities. I subsequently excavated seedlings every two weeks for four-and-a-half months and determined their ECM colonization, response to shade, and response to surrounding grass density. Across all sites, pine seedlings in high shade had a higher mean chlorophyll concentration and lower stem dry weight than in full sun. Competition with grass reduced seedling survival and stem dry weight. Initial colonization was rapid and not different among sites, with 5.4 % of roots colonized 15 days after transplant. Pine seedlings had midpoint means of 29.5 %, 18.1 % and 21.3 % ECM root tips in low, medium and high adult pine density sites, respectively, suggesting that pine seedlings establishing in flatwoods encounter sufficient ECM fungi to support their growth, regardless of adult pine density. In a field experiment, I determined in the presence versus absence of adult pines if pine seedlings had higher ECM colonization and consequent improved survival, mineral nutrition, and growth. Within and beyond pine stands, I transplanted seedlings into intact or drilled, hyphae in-growth pipes buried in the ground. I placed autoclaved or fresh ECM root inoculum in two sets of intact pipes, and autoclaved inoculum in drilled pipes into which mycorrhizal hyphae could extend from the surrounding vegetation. Seven-and-a-half months after transplant, ECM hyphae had penetrated the drilled pipes and colonized pine seedlings, but roots from the surrounding vegetation also penetrated pipes. Extraneous roots reduced the survival of seedlings both within and beyond pine stands, but extraneous roots reduced seedling growth only beyond pine stands. Because percentage ECM root tips was higher in the presence (53 %) than in the absence (38.8%) of adult pines, pine stands might benefit the competitive ability of seedlings by increased ECM colonization and possibly by common mycorrhizal networks connecting seedlings to adults. Because beneficial effects of ECM in the field were small, I also examined ECM effects on pine seedlings in a greenhouse experiment. I manipulated ECM fungus colonization and the volume of flatwoods soil to which extraradical mycelium had access. In a small volume of soil (220 mL), fresh ECM root inoculum promoted the mycorrhizal colonization of seedlings versus those receiving autoclaved roots, but seedling growth and uptake of Mg, Ca, and Zn was lower with fresh than with autoclaved root inoculum. Growth and mineral nutrient uptake likely was enhanced by a pulse of nutrients from autoclaved roots, but for inoculated plants may have been reduced because of nutrient retention by saprotrophic microorganisms degrading fresh ECM roots and because of mineral nutrient retention by ECM fungi. Ectomycorrhizal seedlings with extraradical mycelium access to a large soil volume had higher mean chlorophyll concentration than those in a small soil volume. Weekly disturbance of the extraradical mycelium, however, reduced foliar contents of Mn, K, P, N, and Zn by one-third to one-half, and reduced needle dry weight of seedlings by one-third, demonstrating the importance of extraradical mycelium accessing a large volume of soil when it is nutrient-poor. My research demonstrates that ECM fungi are widespread in flatwoods and rapidly colonize pine seedlings. ECM fungus inocula are greater in the presence than in the absence of adult pines, and ECM or seedlings' connections to a common mycorrhizal network improve seedlings' belowground competitive ability. ECM especially enhance seedling mineral nutrition and growth when undisturbed, extraradical mycelium extends throughout a large volume of soil. Populations of Pinus elliottii var. densa might best regenerate in flatwoods if seedlings recruit near adult pines and where there is little competition for light, water, and mineral nutrients.

Regenerating oak (Quercus spp.) is a problem on most intermediate to high-quality sites throughout the eastern US. Oak is often present in the overstory and abundant in the understory, but is absent from the midstory due to increased competition from less-valuable mesic species such as Liriodendron tulipifera and Acer rubrum. Red maple has expanded its range dramatically since fire suppression began in the 1930s, and is an important competitor of oak. To study relationships between oak and silvicultural treatments, an experiment was initiated in 1990 that included three northern red oak (Quercus rubra)-dominated stands and three red pine (Pinus resinosa) plantations in northern Lower Michigan. Areas of each stand were thinned to four levels of canopy cover in 1991: clearcut, 25% residual canopy, 75% residual canopy, and uncut control, with caged and uncaged northern red oak seedlings planted within each treatment. A thick midstory of red maple developed over the subsequent ten years, hindering development of advance oak regeneration. Low-intensity, early-spring prescribed fires were conducted on all stands in 2002 and 2008 in an effort to control red maple. Heights of planted red oak and naturally occurring red maple and oak regeneration in three size classes were measured before and after each fire with the objectives to: 1) Test the hypothesis that oak sprouts would have greater height growth after the 2008 prescribed burn than after the 2002 prescribed burn; 2) Test the hypotheses that (a) red maple stems would be reduced to a greater degree following the 2008 burn than following the 2002 burn, and that (b) the number of natural oak stems would be increased to a greater degree following the 2008 burn than following the 2002 burn; and 3) Evaluate the relationships between post-burn planted oak sprout height and pre-burn planted oak sprout height, fire temperature, and canopy cover. Following the second fire, planted oak sprouts increased in height rapidly in pine stands, where there was little red maple competition, but grew less rapidly in oak stands. Red maple densities decreased more following the first fire than the second fire. The hypothesis that natural oak regeneration stem densities would increase to a greater degree following the 2008 burn than following the 2007 burn was not supported. Pre-burn planted oak height was the best predictor of post-burn planted oak height.

Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 1978. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the World Wide Web.

Stereochemistry plays an important role in nature because biologically important molecules such as amino acids, nucleotides and sugars, only exist in enantiomerically pure forms. Semiochemicals carry messages, between the same species (pheromones) and between different species (allelochemicals). Both pheromones and allelochemicals can be used as environmentally friendly pest management. Many semiochemicals, i.e. behaviour modifying chemicals, consist of pure or well-defined mixtures of stereoisomers, where some of the other stereoisomers can be repellent. It is therefore important to be able to separate them to produce a synthetic pheromone in a mixture that is attractive. Pine sawflies are a family of insects that in some cases can be severe defoliators of conifer trees. Diprion pini, Diprion similis and Neodiprion sertifer are severe pests for these trees and have got the most attention in pine sawfly pheromone studies. The pheromone precursors are stored in the female body as long-chain secondary alcohols, which, when released, are esterified to acetates or propionates. The alcohols are chiral, and normally one of the stereoisomer is the main pheromone component, sometimes possible together with other stereoisomers as essential minor components. Bicyclus is a genus of African butterflies, and especially Bicyclus anynana has become a popular model for the study of life history evolution, morphology, mating choice and genetics. The wing pattern of Bicyclus differs depending on the season, with large eyespots during the rain-season and small or absent spots during the dry season.  Euglossa is one of the genera among the orchid bees in the Neotropics that does not produce its own pheromone. Instead, the males collect fragrances from orchids and other sources and store them in a pocket in their hind legs. Both Bicyclus and Euglossa use semiochemicals similar to pine sawflies, and thus can be analysed by the same methods. Pheromones and other semiochemicals in insects are often present in low amounts in a complex matrix, and purification of the sample before chemical analysis is often required. A common method is gradient elution on a solid phase silica column. Separation of stereoisomers can be achieved either by using a column with a chiral stationary phase (CSP) or with pre-column derivatisation using a column with an achiral stationary phase (ASP) or a combination of both, with mass detection as the dominant detection method. The purpose of this work has been to improve the purification method, find suitable methods to separate the stereoisomers of secondary alcohols, and to apply this on extracts of insects. By selecting the right fractions to collect during gradient elution the purification method was optimised. To reduce plasticizer contamination from ordinary columns, solid phase columns of Teflon or glass were used. For pre-column derivatisation of different chiral alcohols various acid chlorides were tested. For the pine sawfly pheromone precursors enantiopure (2S)-2-acetoxypropionyl chloride was the best choice. To separate some of the stereoisomers achiral 2-naphthoyl chloride was used. For derivatisation of 6,10,14-trimethylpentadecan-2-ol (R)-trans-chrysanthemoyl chloride was the best choice. The derivatised alcohols were separated on different columns, both chiral and non-chiral. Varian FactorFour VF-23ms was chosen as a general-purpose column, the Agilent HP-88 column was the best column with an ASP of those tested, and the Chiraldex B-PA column (CSP) was the only one that could separate all eight stereoisomers of derivatised 3,7-dimethylundecan-2-ol, 3,7-dimethyldodecan-2-ol, and 3,7-dimethyltridecan-2-ol. To determine the stereoisomeric purity of standard solutions used in field experiments and extracts of different species of insects the optimised methods were applied. For extracts from B. anynana, Euglossa and Neodiprion lecontei this work describe the first determination of the stereochemistry of some of their semiochemicals. For the determination of the stereochemistry of chiral semiochemicals the methods for purification and separation presented herein have shown to be of great value. The results will hopefully contribute to a better understanding of the communication among insects, and ultimately to a more environmentally friendly pest control. / Många naturligt förekommande kemiska ämnen finns som två spegelbilder av varandra, ungefär som höger och vänster hand. Dessa kan ha helt olika egenskaper och det är därför viktigt att kunna separera dem. Insekter och andra djur använder olika doftämnen för att kommunicera med varandra, om det är inom samma art kallas de för feromoner. De kan bestå av ett ämne eller en blandning av flera. Dessa doftämnen kan man även använda för att på ett miljövänligt sätt bekämpa skadeinsekter. En fälla med syntetiskt feromon för en viss insekt lockar endast till sig den arten, medan alla andra är opåverkade. Eftersom dessa ämnen ofta finns som spegelbilder där kanske bara den ena är aktiv och den andra rent av frånstötande, måste man kunna separera dem för att framställa ett syntetiskt feromon som är attraktivt. Målet med detta arbete har varit att bestämma feromonet hos olika arter av tallsteklar som kan vara svåra skadedjur på tallskog. De metoder som tagits fram har även tillämpats på några arter av afrikanska fjärilar samt orkidébin från Centralamerika eftersom de använder snarlika doftämnen. Att få fram feromonet från en insekt är lite som att leta efter in nål i en höstack eftersom de ofta bara innehåller några miljarddels gram per individ. Provet behöver först renas, och en del av arbetet i det här projektet har gått ut på att ta fram en lämplig reningsmetod. Huvudfokus har dock varit på att ta fram metoder som kan separera och identifiera det eller de ämnen, och spegelbilder av dessa, som doftämnena består av. När lämpliga metoder tagits fram har extrakt av olika insektsarter analyserats. I några fall är det första gången som deras feromon bestämts i detalj. Resultaten kan förhoppningsvis bidra till en ökad kunskap om insekters sätt att kommunicera, och i slutändan till miljövänligare bekämpning av skadeinsekter.