We present new Hubble Space Telescope observations of three a priori known starlight-scattering circumstellar debris systems (CDSs) viewed at intermediate inclinations around nearby close-solar analog stars: HD 207129, HD 202628, and HD 202917. Each of these CDSs possesses ring-like components that are more massive analogs of our solar system's Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt. These systems were chosen for follow-up observations to provide imaging with higher fidelity and better sensitivity for the sparse sample of solar-analog CDSs that range over two decades in systemic ages, with HD 202628 and HD 207129 (both similar to 2.3 Gyr) currently the oldest CDSs imaged in visible or near-IR light. These deep (10-14 ks) observations, made with six-roll point-spread-function template visible-light coronagraphy. using the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, were designed to better reveal their angularly large debris rings of diffuse/low surface brightness, and for all targets probe their exo-ring environments for starlight-scattering materials that present observational challenges for current ground-based facilities and instruments. Contemporaneously also observing with a narrower occulter position, these observations additionally probe the CDS endo-ring environments that are seen to be relatively devoid of scatterers. We discuss the morphological, geometrical, and photometric properties of these CDSs also in the context of other CDSs hosted by FGK stars that we have previously imaged as a homogeneously observed ensemble. From this combined sample we report a general decay in quiescent-disk F-disk/F-star optical brightness similar to t(-0.8), similar to what is seen at thermal IR wavelengths, and CDSs with a significant diversity in scattering phase asymmetries, and spatial distributions of their starlight-scattering grains.

We present Gemini Planet Imager polarized intensity imagery of HD 100453 in Y, J, and K1 bands that reveals an inner gap (9-18 au), an outer disk (18-39 au) with two prominent spiral arms, and two azimuthally localized dark features that are also present in Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet REsearch (SPHERE) total intensity images. Spectral energy distribution fitting further suggests that the radial gap extends to 1 au. The narrow, wedge-like shape of the dark features appears similar to predictions of shadows cast by an inner disk that is misaligned with respect to the outer disk. Using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code HOCHUNCK3D, we construct a model of the disk that allows us to determine its physical properties in more detail. From the angular separation of the features, we measure the difference in inclination between the disks (45 degrees) and their major axes, PA = 140 degrees east of north for the outer disk, and 100 degrees for the inner disk. We find an outer-disk inclination of 25 degrees +/- 10 degrees from face-on, in broad agreement with the Wagner et al. measurement of 34 degrees. SPHERE data in J and H bands indicate a reddish disk, which indicates that HD 100453 is evolving into a young debris disk.

We report the first detailed chemical abundance analysis of the exoplanet-hosting M-dwarf stars Kepler-138 and Kepler-186 from the analysis of high-resolution (R similar to 22,500) H-band spectra from the SDSS-IV-APOGEE survey. Chemical abundances of 13 elements-C, O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, and Fe-are extracted from the APOGEE spectra of these early M-dwarfs via spectrum syntheses computed with an improved line list that takes into account H2O and FeH lines. This paper demonstrates that APOGEE spectra can be analyzed to determine detailed chemical compositions of M-dwarfs. Both exoplanet-hosting M-dwarfs display modest sub-solar metallicities: [Fe/H](Kepler-138) = -0.09 +/- 0.09 dex and [Fe/H](Kepler-186) = -0.08 +/- 0.10 dex. The measured metallicities resulting from this high-resolution analysis are found to be higher by similar to 0.1-0.2 dex than previous estimates from lower-resolution spectra. The C/O ratios obtained for the two planet-hosting stars are near-solar, with values of 0.55 +/- 0.10 for Kepler-138 and 0.52 +/- 0.12 for Kepler-186. Kepler-186 exhibits a marginally enhanced [Si/Fe] ratio.

Changes of semimajor axes of giant planets, which took place 4 billion years ago and evolved the Solar System towards its present state, affected various populations of minor Solar-System bodies. One of these populations was a group of dynamically stable asteroids in the 2:1 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter which reside in two islands of the phase space, denoted A and B, and exhibit lifetimes comparable to the age of the Solar System. The origin of stable asteroids has not been explained so far. Our main goal is to create a viable hypothesis of their origin. We update the resonant population and its physical properties on the basis of up-to-date observational data. Using an N-body model with seven giant planets and the Yarkovsky effect included, we demonstrate that the depletion of island A is faster compared to island B. We then investigate: (i) survivability of primordial resonant asteroids and (ii) capture of the population during planetary migration, using a recently described scenario with an escaping fifth giant planet and a jumping-Jupiter instability. We employ simulations with prescribed migration, smooth late migration and we statistically evaluate the results using dynamical maps. We also model collisions during the last 4 billion years. We conclude that the long-lived group was created by a...

In this thesis, we study how the planetary migration affects asteroid families. We identify the families among the Trojans of Jupiter by analysing their properties in the space of resonant elements, the size-frequency distribution and the colour indices. The previously reported number of families (10) seems to be overestimated, our analysis indicates that there is only one collisional family among Trojans with the parent-body size DPB > 100 km. We also performed a simulation of the long-term orbital evolution of the Trojan families. We used a modified version of the SWIFT symplectic integrator where the migration is set analytically. We found that the families are unstable even in the late stages of the migration, when Jupiter and Saturn recede from their mutual 1:2 resonance. Hence, the families observed today must have been created after the planetary migration ended. In the last part of the work, we study a formation of asteroid families in the Main Belt during the Late Heavy Bombardement. We simulate perturbations induced by migrating planets in the "jumping Jupiter" scenario (Morbidelli et al., 2010) and we conclude that big families (DPB > 200 km) created during the bombardement should be observable today.

We present optical and near-infrared high-contrast images of the transitional disk HD 100546 taken with the Magellan Adaptive Optics system (MagAO) and the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI). GPI data include both polarized intensity and total intensity imagery, and MagAO data are taken in Simultaneous Differential Imaging mode at Ha. The new GPI H-band total intensity data represent a significant enhancement in sensitivity and field rotation compared to previous data sets and enable a detailed exploration of substructure in the disk. The data are processed with a variety of differential imaging techniques (polarized, angular, reference, and simultaneous differential imaging) in an attempt to identify the disk structures that are most consistent across wavelengths, processing techniques, and algorithmic parameters. The inner disk cavity at 15 au is clearly resolved in multiple data sets, as are a variety of spiral features. While the cavity and spiral structures are identified at levels significantly distinct from the neighboring regions of the disk under several algorithms and with a range of algorithmic parameters, emission at the location of HD 100546 "c" varies from point-like under aggressive algorithmic parameters to a smooth continuous structure with conservative parameters, and is consistent with disk emission. Features identified in the HD 100546 disk bear qualitative similarity to computational models of a moderately inclined two-armed spiral disk, where projection effects and wrapping of the spiral arms around the star result in a number of truncated spiral features in forward-modeled images.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier la formation de tourbillons dans la zone morte des disques protoplanétaires. Un code numérique 3D compressible a été mis au point et utilisé pour cette étude. Deux instabilités hydrodynamiques sont envisagées pour former les tourbillons: l'instabilité de Rossby et l'instabilité barocline.La première entraine la fragmentation d'une sur-densité annulaire en une chaîne de tourbillons qui se rattrapent les uns les autres et finissent par fusionner en un seul tourbillon qui reste stable sur de très longues durées lorsque son rapport d’aspect est suffisamment grand, et possède une structure quasi bidimensionnelle. En revanche, les tourbillons tridimensionnels de petits rapport d'aspect sont affectés par l’instabilité elliptique qui les détruits en quelques rotations. Seuls persistent ceux de grand rapport d'aspect.L'instabilité barocline, fondamentalement non linéaire, produit des tourbillons à partir de perturbations d'amplitude finies ; ces tourbillons sont ensuite amplifiés et fusionnent en tourbillons plus gros si le disque est stratifié de façon instable et s’il permet aussi le transfert de chaleur. Deux types de transfert thermique ont été envisagés pour étudier cette instabilité qui conduit alors à des différences significatives dans la structure des tourbillons formés. Le rapport d'aspect étant lié à la vorticité, l'amplification des tourbillons se traduit par une diminution de leur rapport d'aspect, et les rend donc sujet à l'instabilité elliptique. Cependant, ils ne sont pas détruit et gardent une structure tourbillonnaire grâce à l'amplification barocline. / The objective of this thesis is to study the formation of vortices in the dead-zone of protoplanetary disks. A 3D compressible numerical code has been performed and used for this study. Two hydrodynamical instabilities are considered for vortex formation: the Rossby wave instability and the baroclinic instability.The first one leads tp the fragmentation of an annular bump into a chain of vortices that catch one another and merge in a single vortex; this vortex remains stable on very long durations when its aspect ratio is large enough and has a quasi two-dimensional structure. In contrast, tridimensional small aspect ratios vortices are affected by the elliptical instability and are destroyed in a few rotation periods. Only vortices with large aspect ratios can survive.The baroclinic instability, a basically non-linear one, can produce vortices from small amplitude perturbations; these vortices are then amplified and merge in bigger vortices if the disk is unstably stratified and also permits heat transfer. Two types of heat transfer have been considered leading to significant differences in the structures of the resulting vortices. As aspect ratio and vorticity are strongly related, the baroclinic amplification reduces the aspect ratio and, so, make the vortex sensitive to the elliptical instability. However, such vortices are not destroyed and keep a vertical structure thanks to the baroclinic amplification.

The Pluto-Charon system has come into sharper focus following the flyby of New Horizons. We use N-body simulations to probe the unique dynamical history of this binary dwarf planet system. We follow the evolution of the debris disc that might have formed during the Charon-forming giant impact. First, we note that in situ formation of the four circumbinary moons is extremely difficult if Charon undergoes eccentric tidal evolution. We track collisions of disc debris with Charon, estimating that hundreds to hundreds of thousands of visible craters might arise from 0.3-5 km radius bodies. New Horizons data suggesting a dearth of these small craters may place constraints on the disc properties. While tidal heating will erase some of the cratering history, both tidal and radiogenic heating may also make it possible to differentiate disc debris craters from Kuiper belt object craters. We also track the debris ejected from the Pluto-Charon system into the Solar system; while most of this debris is ultimately lost from the Solar system, a few tens of 10-30 km radius bodies could survive as a Pluto-Charon collisional family. Most are plutinos in the 3: 2 resonance with Neptune, while a small number populate nearby resonances. We show that migration of the giant planets early in the Solar system's history would not destroy this collisional family. Finally, we suggest that identification of such a family would likely need to be based on composition as they show minimal clustering in relevant orbital parameters.

Erosion has a long history in science and is used in many different fields today, for example in geology for coastal erosion and in the oil industry for pipe erosion. It is very difficult to study erosion both analytically. Numerically it is difficult due to moving and shape-changing boundaries. Here we develop a numerical model in 3D using the Lattice-Boltzmann method, which is good at simulating complex moving boundaries, and erosion capabilities are implemented. Both laminar and turbulent flow can be modelled with this program. Using an experimentally derived model for the mass change due to erosion in clay and mud-type objects, one can derive equations predicting that the volume of a sphere should, due to erosion, scale as V ∼ −t2. This is also observed with simulations. The shapes of a double sphere with different orientations and a cube in laminar flow we find to have similar power law exponent P, P = 2±0.1. But a cube eroding in Re = 800 had no power law behaviour, meaning that the current analytical framework is incomplete. The possibility of a more general framework is presented for future research. Different Reynolds number also affected the power law behaviour and the shape change over time for the different solids. Very little research has been made for erosion of planetesimals, but it has been argued that erosion can be relevant to their fate. Using the same erosion model, an equation of the erosion time is found for laminar flows and for a sphere. Simulation results find that the equation works within an order of magnitude for turbulent flows, a double sphere and a cube. This gives an estimate of the erosion time t∗ of planetesimals to be t∗ ∼ 1s, given a size of radius equal to 10cm and 1km, an orbital eccentricity e > 10−2 and a distance at r = 1 a.u. Implying that orbits for planetesimals with low eccentricity might be favoured.

De acordo com o modelo sequencial de acreção, os planetas gigantes se formam através de um núcleo sólido a partir da captura de planetesimais. Esse núcleo, atingindo uma determinada massa, é capaz de capturar o gás residual do disco protoplanetário que constituirá o seu envelope, formando, então, um planeta gigante (Mizuno, 1980; Pollack et al., 1996). A parte crtica desse cenário está no ajuste dos tempos de formação do núcleo sólido, de captura do gás e dos processos de migração planetária com o tempo de vida do disco (Mordasini et al., 2010). Resultados numéricos mostram que o tempo necessário para a formação de um planeta gigante é muito alto em relação ao tempo de vida do disco, e, que a migração planetária pode ser muito rápida, levando os planetas a carem na estrela antes de sua completa formação. Em geral, os trabalhos sobre formação planetária tratam a migração do planeta utilizando prescrições analíticas (Fortier et al., 2013). No entanto, diversos efeitos associados à termodinâmica do disco de gás fazem com que esses modelos analíticos sejam limitados para lidar com a migração planetária (Paardekooper et al., 2010). De fato, para lidar com a migração planetária de tipo I, esses resultados analíticos se utilizam de discos de gás fisicamente simples e da linearização das equações da hidrodinâmica (Meyer-Vernet e Sicardy, 1987; Tanaka et al., 2002). Para a migração de tipo II, a situação é ainda mais complicada, já que a alta massa do planeta cria um gap em torno da órbita planetária, que impõe uma quebra da linearidade, impossibilitando a obtenção de uma prescrição analtica (Bryden e Lin, 1999). Assim, os resultados numéricos obtidos a partir de simuladores hidrodinâmicos, como o FARGO3D (Masset, 2000; Bentez-Llambay e Masset, 2016), ZEUS (Stone e Norman, 1992), PLUTO (Mignone et al., 2012), entre outros, são essenciais para uma análise mais robusta dos processos de migração planetária dentro de uma gama maior de condições fsicas para o disco de gás. No entanto, os simuladores hidrodinâmicos que tratam da interação do planeta com o disco de gás, em geral, não possuem um modelo para formação planetária. Em alguns deles, modelos para acreção de gás são construdos com base no regime de runaway dessa acreção (Kley, 1999). Todavia, a acreção de sólidos e a acreção de gás para planetas de baixa massa, na maior parte dos casos, não são levadas em consideração. Boa parte disso se deve ao fato de os modelos de formação planetária usarem simulações N-corpos, que, aliados ao código hidrodinâmico, seriam altamente custosos computacionalmente. Assim, torna-se necessário o uso de modelos alternativos para a formação planetária, que sejam capazes de reproduzir os resultados de uma simulação N-corpos de forma confiável. Construir um modelo que considera a acreção de sólidos e gás é uma tarefa árdua e ao mesmo tempo desafiadora. Assim, o presente projeto propõe a implementação de um cenário fisicamente plausível para a formação planetária dentro do código magneto hidrodinâmico FARGO3D. Para modelar a acreção de planetesimais, usamos como base os trabalhos de Guilera et al. (2010) e Fortier et al. (2013), que utilizam um modelo estatstico para determinar a taxa de acreção de planetesimais (Inaba et al., 2001). Esse modelo será implementado pela primeira vez no FARGO3D. Atualmente, sabe-se que a acreção de peebles (material sólido entre cm e mm) tem um impacto importante na formação planetária (Lambrechts e Johansen, 2014; Guilera, 2016; Johansen e Lambrechts, 2017). No entanto, núcleos de poucas massas terrestres possuem um envelope planetário que poderia destruir esses pebbles antes dele alcançar o núcleo (Venturini et al., 2015). Nesta tese, iremos nos preocupar apenas com a acreção de planetesimais, deixando o estudo do pebbles para trabalhos futuros. Para a acreção de gás, iremos modificar o modelo de Kley (1999) incorporado no FARGO antecessor. Essas modificações visam incorporar o raio de Bondi (Bondi, 1952) para determinar a zona de acreção, o efeito da altura do disco e a mudança na taxa de acreção de gás de acordo com a massa do planeta. As modificações implementadas no modelo de acreção de gás foram realizadas com base nos trabalhos de Dürmann e Kley (2015), Russell (2011) e Fortier et al. (2013). A adaptação no código de acreção de gás para levar em conta uma faixa maior de massas planetárias foi realizada utilizando a escala de tempo de Kelvin-Helmoltz. Para isso, seguimos o trabalho de Ikoma et al. (2000) e Idae Lin (2004b). Para testar o modelo de formação planetária no FARGO3D, a simulação padrão para o disco de gás utilizada nesta tese adota um disco bidimensional fino com taxa de acreção constante. A razão de aspecto do disco será de h = 0.05 com um fator de curvatura de = 0.0. Esses valores são consistentes com a teoria de discos finos e são usados nas maioria das simulações que envolvem discos de acreção (Bell et al., 1997; Frank et al., 2002). O disco é assumido localmente isotérmico e a viscosidade do disco é dirigida pela prescrição de Shakura e Sunyaev (1973), com = 0.03. O modelo de disco é simplificado e caractersticas importantes podem influenciar no processo de formação e migração planetária, como as trocas de energia. No entanto, ele é um ótimo modelo inicial para um teste consistente do modelo de formação planetária implementado, já que possui um resultado analtico conhecido. Casos mais complexos serão explorados em trabalhos futuros. Com o modelo de formação planetária implementado, foi possível estudar simultânea- mente a formação e a migração do planeta dentro do simulador hidrodinâmico. Isto é, analisamos a escala de tempo envolvida no processo de migração em conjunto com a escala de tempo da formação planetária para vários parâmetros fsicos envolvidos no modelo. A análise revelou, para nosso modelo de disco, que a escala de crescimento do planeta conseguiu se manter mais baixa que a escala de migração, mesmo quando o planeta atravessou a linha de gelo, local onde há menor quantidade de material disponvel para a acreção de sólidos. Assim, para planetesimais pequenos (raio 0.1 km), foi possvel obter planetas com massas próximas de 5 massas de Júpiter em regiões entre 0.5 e 1 ua, num tempo menor que o tempo de vida do disco. Vale ressaltar que esta tese conta com uma descrição detalhada de como implementar o modelo dentro do FARGO3D, incluindo um apêndice com o programa comentado linha a linha. O intuito é que o leitor possa usar esse modelo de formação e migração planetária para obter novos resultados e vnculos sobre a formação de sistemas exoplanetários ou do nosso Sistema Solar, assim como usar em qualquer outra aplicação que julgar necessária. / According to the sequential model of accretion, the giant planets are formed from a solid nucleus by capturing planetesimals. When this nucleus reaches a certain mass, it captures the residual gas of the protoplanetary disc that will constitute its envelope, forming a giant planet (Mizuno, 1980; Pollack et al., 1996). The critical part of this scenario is to adjust the planet formation and migration timescales with the lifetime of the disk (Mordasini et al., 2010). Numerical results show that the time required for the formation of a giant planet is very long compared to the lifetime of the disc, and that planetary migration can be very rapid, causing the planets to fall into the star before their full formation. In general, works on planetary formation use analytical models to deal with the migration of the planets (Fortier et al., 2013). However, these analytical models are limited given that they do not include several effects associated with the thermodynamics of the gas disc (Paardekooper et al., 2010). Indeed, in order to deal with planetary migration of type I, these analytical models use physically simple gas discs and rely on the linearization of the hydrodynamic equations (Meyer-Vernet e Sicardy, 1987; Tanaka et al., 2002). For the type II migration, the situation is even more complicated. This is due to the fact that the large mass of the planet creates a gap around the orbit of the planet, causing nonlinearities (Bryden e Lin, 1999). Thus, the numerical results obtained using hydrodynamic simulators, such as FARGO3D (Masset, 2000; Bentez-Llambay e Masset, 2016), ZEUS (Stone e Norman, 1992), PLUTO (Mignone et al., 2012), among others, are essential for a more robust analysis of the processes of planetary migration considering a wider range of physical conditions for the gas disc. However, in general, hydrodynamic simulators do not have a model for the planetaryformation. In some of them, models for gas accretion are built based of the runaway regime of accretion (Kley, 1999). Furthermore, the accretion of solids and the accretion of gas for low mass planets are not considered in most of the cases. This is mainly due to the fact that the models of planetary formation use N-body simulations that are computationally very expensive. Thus, it is necessary to use alternative models for the planetary formation, that are capable of reproducing the same results of an N-body simulation. Building a complete model that takes into account all these processes is a hard and challenging task. So, this project aims the implementation of a physically plausible scenario for a planetary formation inside the magneto-hydrodynamic code FARGO3D. For the accretion model we use the works by Guilera et al. (2010) and Fortier et al. (2013), which employ an statistical model to determine the accretion rate of planetesimals (Inaba et al., 2001). This model will be implemented for the first time in the FARGO3D code. It is now known that the accretion of peebles (material with size ranging from mm and cm) has a important impact on the planetary formation (Lambrechts e Johansen, 2014; Guilera, 2016; Johansen e Lambrechts, 2017), although cores with a few masses of the Earth have a planetary envelope that could destroy those pebbles, before they reach the nucleus (Venturini et al., 2015). In this thesis, we will only deal with the accretion of planetesimals, leaving the study of pebbles for future work. For the gas accretion, we use a modified model based on Kley (1999). The modifications aim to incorporate the Bondi radius (Bondi, 1952) to determine the accretion zone, the effect of the height of the disc and the frequency of accretion. The implemented modifications are based on the works by Dürmann e Kley (2015), Russell (2011) and Fortier et al. (2013). The adaptation in the gas accretion code to take into account a wider range of planetary masses was achieved using the Kelvin-Helmoltz timescale, according to the works by Ikoma et al. (2000) and Ida e Lin (2004b). To test the planetary formation model in FARGO3D, the standard simulation for the gas disc uses a bi-dimensional thin disc. The discs aspect ratio is h = 0.05 with a curvature factor of = 0.0. These values are consistent with the theory of thin dics and are used in most of the simulations for accretion discs (Bell et al., 1997; Frank et al., 2002). The disc is assumed to be locally isothermal and the viscosity of the disc is driven by the prescription from Shakura e Sunyaev (1973), with = 0.03. The disc model is simplified and important features, such as energy exchanges, may influence the process of planetary formation andmigration. However, it is a good initial model for a consistent test of the implemented model of planetary formation, which has an known analysical result. More complex cases will be explored in future work. With the newly implemented model for planetary formation, it was possible to simul- taneously study the planet formation and the planet migration using the hydrodynamic simulator. That is, we analyzed both the timescale for planetary formation and the timescale for the migration of the planet, and compared them for the parameters of the model. The analysis revealed that, for our disc model, the timescale of the growth rate of the planet remained lower than the migration timescale, even when the planet crossed the ice line, where there is less material available for solid accretion. Thus, for small planetesimals (1km radius) it was possible to obtain planets with masses of approximately 5 Jupiter masses in regions between 0.5 and 1 au, in nearly the same time as the lifetime of the disc. It is worth noting that this thesis presents a detailed description of how to implement the model for planetary formation in the FARGO3D, including an appendix with the commented code. The goal is to allow the reader to use this planet formation model to obtain new results both about the formation of exoplanetary systems and our Solar System, as well as use it in any relevant application.