Rationale. For centuries, medications derived from the marijuana plant have been used for therapeutic purposes across numerous cultures. In 1964, the primary psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (-9-THC) was defined. This, followed by the discovery of the endocannabinoid system, marked the beginning of comprehensive research into the beneficial exploitation of this system. The cannabis plant contains various other cannabinoids besides -9-THC. Most of the effects of cannabinoid-based therapies are based on the agonistic action of -9-THC through cannabinoid receptors. Alternatively, some of these effects are caused by the actions of other cannabinoids, like cannabidiol, which does not have high affinity for cannabinoid receptors. Like -9-THC, cannabidiol (CBD), the non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid in Cannabis sativa, has been hypothesized to ameliorate adverse effects of -9-THC. Cannabidiol possesses neuroprotective, antiemetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Sativex, a 1:1 ratio of CBD and -9-THC, is currently an approved medication in Europe for the treatment of conditions such as neuropathic pain, and has been fast tracked by the USFDA for late stage clinical trials for a host of disorders, ranging from epilepsy to irritable bowel disease. Additionally, increasing preclinical evidence demonstrates that treatment with Cannabidiol alone produces efficacy on a variety of nervous system injuries, including neuropathic pain, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. Furthermore, there is mounting evidence of an “entourage effect” in cannabinoid-based pharmacotherapies. This effect occurs when treatment with a combination of cannabinoids derived from the plant produce more efficacy than treatment with a single cannabinoid (1). As cannabinoid-based treatments continue to develop and clinical data increases, further investigation of the entourage effect is necessary to facilitate the appropriate future treatment regimens for nervous system disorders. Hypotheses. We hypothesized that treatment with the non-psychoactive cannabis compound cannabidiol would be as effective as the psychoactive cannabis compound -9-THC, or a combination of the two, in mitigating neuropathic pain in a mouse model of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. We additionally hypothesized that cannabidiol would not affect classic cannabinoid-agonist induced cognitive impairment in rodent models of learning and memory. Methodology. Neuropathic pain was induced by repeated injections of the chemotherapeutic agent Paclitaxel. Mechanical hypersensitivity to Paclitaxel was assessed using the Von Frey assay. Cognition was assessed using three rodent models of learning and memory: 1) Conditional Discrimination, 2) Conditional Discrimination with a reversal component, and 3) Barnes Maze. Results. Cannabidiol was found to be more potent and more effective than -9-THC in attenuating neuropathic pain in a dose dependent manner. Combinations of CBD+-9-THC revealed that lower, ineffective doses of CBD and -9-THC display supra-additive effects when given in combination while higher, individually effective doses exhibit sub-additive effects in combination. Cognitively, no deficits were observed over a range of doses of any cannabinoid tested in the conditional discrimination tasks, although a slight trend was observed in animals administered the synthetic mixed CB1/CB2 agonist WIN55,212-2. In the Barnes Maze task, treatment with -9-THC alone dose-dependently decreased number of entries and total time spent in the target zone. Cannabidiol did not produce any effects in the Barnes Maze alone, nor did it attenuate the effects seen in animals treated with -9-THC alone. Lastly, -9-THC did not affect total distance traveled or average speed, whereas combination treatment increased both locomotor measurements at all but the highest combination dose. Conclusions. The results of these studies indicate that cannabidiol is more potent than -9-THC in attenuating neuropathic pain. Results of cognitive testing indicate subtle impairment in animals treated with -9-THC and WIN55,212-2 that were not reversed by CBD. / Biomedical Sciences

Bakgrund: Fysisk yoga är globalt populärt. Denna yoga har flera fysiologiska effekter, bland annat smärtlindring. Yogans effekt på neuropatisk smärta är inte tydlig. Enstaka studier visar positivt utfall för smärtlindring i yogagruppen i jämförelse med kontroll. Syftet med studien var att undersöka om och i så fall hur yoga ger en effekt på nociceptiv och neuropatisk smärta. Metod: Studien är en litteraturöversikt. Sökningarna utfördes i PubMed, Scopus samt AMED. Bara RCT-studier inkluderades. PICO formatet formade inklusionskriterierna, patienten skulle ha nociceptiv smärta och/eller neuropatisk smärta, interventionen skulle vara yoga, kontrollen skulle vara ingen eller andra behandlingar och utfallsmått skulle vara VAS smärtskattningsskala eller motsvarande. De inkluderade studierna granskades med PEDro-Scale och skulle vara över 6 poäng totalt. Resultat: Sökningen resulterade i 396 träffar, varav 71 var relevanta. Åtta studier inkluderades i den slutgiltiga granskningen. Fem av studierna visade statistisk signifikant smärtlindring i yogagruppen i jämförelse med kontrollgruppen, två av dem studerade exklusivt neuropatisk smärta och en exkluderade neuropatisk smärta. Sex av de totala studierna exkluderade ej radikulopati. Sju av studierna utfördes på patienter med ländryggssmärta. Konklusion: Yoga visade en smärtlindrande effekt vid neuropatisk och nociceptiv smärta i denna studie. I denna studie var yogans smärtlindrande effekt kortsiktigt och upp till ett halvår. Neuropatisk smärta studeras exklusivt med låg frekvens inom området. Därav krävs vidare forskning inom området för att säkerställa vilken effekt yoga har på neuropatisk smärta över lag.

According to the American Cancer Society (2009) it is estimated that there will be 1.5 million new cases of cancer in the United States in 2009. Pain is a common symptom experienced by cancer patients throughout various stages of the disease process, as well as while undergoing cancer treatment. Research has found that between 30 and 45% of cancer patients report pain upon diagnosis or at some stage throughout the course of the disease, while 75% of patients with advanced cancer report suffering from pain. The pain experienced by cancer patients is often under treated. Unrelieved pain has negative effects on almost every aspect of an individual's life resulting in needless suffering, decreased quality of life, immunosuppression, and additional burdens on family caregivers. The under treatment of pain in cancer patients could be due in part to the fact that cancer pain is not always completely relieved by analgesic medications. Research is beginning to support the integration of complementary, nonpharmacologic, interventions for pain relief along with a traditional analgesic regimen in order to provide optimal management of pain in cancer patients. The purpose of this integrative review of literature is to examine the use and effectiveness of complementary therapies for the management of pain in cancer patients. Findings indicate that the majority of complementary therapies are effective in improving the pain experience among cancer patients. Recommendations for nursing practice, research, and education will be provided.

No / Pain is a complex and individual experience, and those involved in caring for patients in pain often need creative approaches to identify possible causes, meaning and management. This case study explores the unique pain experience of a patient with cancer being cared for in a hospice at the end of her life.

No / Objective It has been documented that pain in people with dementia is often under-reported and poorly detected. The reasons for this are not clearly defined. This project aimed to explore semantic concepts of pain in people with dementia and whether this is associated with clinical pain report. Design Cohort study with nested cross-sectional analysis. Setting Acute general hospital medical wards for older people. Subjects People with dementia (N = 26) and control participants (N = 13). Methods Two subtests of semantic memory for pain: 1) Identifying painful situations from a standardized range of pictures; 2) Describing the concept of pain. Participants also indicated whether they were in pain or not, were observed for pain (PAINAD scale) and completed the Wong–Baker FACES scale to indicate pain severity. Results Compared with the control group, people with dementia were less able to identify painful situations and used fewer categories to define their concept of pain. In turn, the performance on these two measures was related to the reported presence and, albeit less strongly, to the reported severity of pain, indicating that a reduction in semantic memory for pain is associated with a decline in reported pain. Conclusions This study is the first to show that semantic memory for pain is diminished in dementia patients. When using clinical pain tools, clinicians should consider these effects which may bias clinical pain ratings when they evaluate and manage pain in these patients. This might improve the recognition and management of pain in people with dementia. / Alzheimer's Society and the BUPA Foundation (Grant reference number: 131).

This research was executed as three separate studies. Study 1 focused on the perception of pain and the semantic aspects of pain. Study 2 focused on the measurement of acute pain and mood states. Study 3 focused on the psychological treatment of cancer pain. In Study 1 a group of 66 Setswana-speaking adults were required to describe what they saw, what happened, and what would be the outcome with respect to three visually presented pain scenes using The Pain Apperception Test (PAT) A qualitative analysis of their responses shows that pain is experienced as an all encompassing experience affecting all aspects of their lives, such as the physical, emotional, social, and economic. This was found to be true, irrespective of gender and age with the exception of economic issues. A qualitative analysis of their responses to the Pain Eliciting Incidents Questionnaire (PEIQ) reveals that the Setswana pain descriptors are classifiable according to the three dimensions of pain namely, the sensory-discriminative, affective-motivational, and cognitive-evaluative. Sludy 2 applied the Profile of Mood States (POMS) preoperatively to a group of 58 female laparotomy (gynaecological) patients. These patients were also tested post-operatively with the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the Wisconsin Brief Pain Questionnaire (WBPQ) as pain measures. The pain measures were taken at no medication and at the peak of medication. Factor analysis could not confirm the validity of the six POMS scales. These scales also did not show correlations with post-operative pain. Correlations between the pain measures showed acceptable reliability and validity of the VAS and the WBPQ. In Study 3 three groups of 15 cancer patients each, suffering from chronic pain, were treated over a period of two weeks with either cognitive behavioural therapy plus medication, reassurance therapy plus medication, or medication only. Comparison of before and after treatment pain measures showed that both cognitive behavioural therapy and reassurance therapy had a beneficial effect. Follow-up results three months later showed that the beneficial effect of reassurance therapy did not persist. Patients treated with cognitive behavioral therapy still showed the beneficial effects thereof. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

Thesis (M.Tech.: Chiropractic)-Dept. of Chiropractic, Durban Institute of Technology, 2006. xviii, 134, 7 leaves. / Shoulder injuries, which account for 8% to 20% of volleyball injuries, are usually rotator cuff and / or biceps tendinosis caused by overuse (Briner et al.1999); in addition 38-75% of competitive swimmers have had a history of shoulder pain, while 9 - 35% of these swimmers were currently experiencing pain (McMaster and Troup, 1993). Rotator cuff tendinosis is also found in laborers involved in repeated overhead activities (i.e. among shipyard welders and steel plate workers), with a prevalence of 18, 3% and 16, 2% respectively (Herberts et al. 1984). Fricker and Hoy (1995), suggest that the principal cause of tendinosis of the rotator cuff muscles is repetitive microtrauma, due to overfatigued muscles and / or weakening of the rotator cuff and scapulothoracic muscles. The etiology of impingement syndrome is therefore multifactorial and is commonly associated with other clinical entities such as weak or dysfunctional scapular musculature, posterior glenohumeral capsule tightness, inflammation of tendons (viz. supraspinatus and long head of biceps), bursal inflammation and glenohumeral instability (Michener et al., 2003). Shoulder syndromes are often related to the development and perpetuation of myofascial trigger points (TrPs) as found by Hains (2002), who suggested that these TrPs become activated during mechanical stress and overload of the involved shoulder musculature. Hammer (1991), suggests that the most valuable modality to treat chronic overuse soft tissue syndromes (irrespective of muscular or tendinous in origin) is friction massage to both regions. Cyriax (1984) and Prentice (1994) state the effect of frictions to include the breakdown of adhesions (scar tissue), as well as preventing the formation of further adhesions.

Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) is characterised by chronic widespread pain, tender points and fatigue. A clear biological explanation of FIVIS is lacking, and there is debate regarding the 'legitimacy' of the condition. Often, therefore, people with FIVIS do not obtain a straightforward, clear diagnosis - or any diagnosis at all. This research sought to explore the diagnostic and subsequent experience of people with FIVIS. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 people formally diagnosed with FIVIS. Interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analysed by the inductionabduction method. Findings were triangulated through documentary analysis of lay literature on FMS. Participants referred to their symptoms within a dualistic framework, with symptoms seen as an aggressive force that invades the body. Individuals had high expectations of the medical profession. They expected tests to be done, with a diagnosis and prognosis to follow. The diagnostic process was often reported as complex, ambiguous, and ambivalent. Although individuals were initially relieved following the diagnosis, this was often replaced by shock and uncertainty, as no one appeared to know what FIVIS is, what caused it or how to treat it. Consequently, informants had actively to search for a meaning of FMS through lay networks and literature. Several chose to reject the diagnosis, as it did not represent their own understanding and experience of their symptoms.The meaning attached to FIVISin fluenced participants' coping strategies. They had difficulty finding adequate social support, and while significant others assumed this role, the informants felt uncomfortable. Many expected the medical profession should provide social support, but this was not always forthcoming. People diagnosed with FIVIS expect their illness to be satisfactorily understood and explained by the medical profession. Tensions exist between this expectation and their actual experience.

Musculoskeletal physiotherapy is the most common intervention for chronic low back disorder. Any observation on clinical practice or investigation into the clinical and scientific literature indicates that musculoskeletal physiotherapy encompasses a plethora of treatment modalities and approaches. The aim of the present investigation was to determine the most common intervention(s) that comprise musculoskeletal physiotherapy and to critically explore their empirical therapeutic basis. Two components were highlighted as the most frequently employed interventions; namely manually applied therapy (manual therapy) and exercise(s) to rehabilitate the lumbar spine's stabilising system. In the course of an extensive literature search, work was uncovered that suggested that the mechanisms required for spinal stability could be better facilitated using methods other than those in current clinical use. These discoveries culminated in the creation of a ten-week rehabilitation programme which was primarily developed to facilitate rehabilitation of spinal stabilisation but also permitted an empirical analysis of this component of musculoskeletal physiotherapy. The efficacy of the regime was then assessed in comparison to manual therapy and to a control (an education booklet) in a randomised controlled trial. Following a series of pilot studies, 300 patients with chronic low back disorder were randomly assigned to groups and completed their respective management programmes. Data were collected on pain, disability, handicap, impairment and quality of life prior to entry and at three, six, twelve and twenty-four months post intervention. The results indicated a consistent trend for greater improvement in the spinal stabilisation group in the pain, handicap, impairment, disability, dysfunction and medication variables. These trends reached statistical significance at the three-month follow-up stage as evidenced by quality of life (P = 0.025), at the six-month follow-up stage in pain (P = 0.009) and dysfunction (P = 0.042) and at the one-year follow-up stage in medication (P = 0.007), dysfunction (P = 0.048), disability (P = 0.0098) and quality of life (P = 0.003). It was therefore concluded that the spinal stabilisation programme was a more effective component of musculoskeletal physiotherapy (when analysed in isolation) than manually applied therapy or an education booklet in the management of chronic low back disorder. Various sub-analyses of the data were conducted. Subjects who entered the study with high levels of low back pain (greater than 50 numerical rating scale) demonstrated a statistically Significant reduction in pain levels (P = 0.04) in both the manual therapy group and the spinal stabilisation group in comparison to the education control group at the three-month follow-up stage. These data provide empirical evidence towards the efficacy of these two musculoskeletal physiotherapy management regimes as being effective in pain reduction in comparison to an active control intervention. This has not hitherto been demonstrated on patients with chronic low back disorder.

published_or_final_version / Nursing Studies / Master / Master of Nursing