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Corrosion of embedded reinforcement is the leading form of deterioration affecting the integrity of reinforced and prestressed concrete bridge members around the world. If undetected, corrosion can limit the service life of the bridge and lead to expensive repairs. The research team at the University of Texas at Austin has developed a new class of passive wireless corrosion sensors. The noncontact (NC) sensor platform provides an economical and nondestructive means for detecting corrosion initiation within concrete. The sensor is powered through the inductive coupling to an external mobile reader that can be handheld or mounted on a vehicle. It is envisioned that the four-dollar sensor will be embedded in concrete during construction and interrogated sporadically over the service life of the structure. The sensor output can be used to detect corrosion initiation within concrete and is expected to enhance the quality information collected during qualitative routine bridge inspections. The NC sensor prototype consists of a resonant circuit that is inductively coupled to a sacrificial transducer. Corrosion of the sacrificial element alters the measured sensor response and is used to detect corrosion within concrete. Electrochemical evaluations were conducted to ensure that the sacrificial element exhibited identical response as the reinforcement steel. In addition, the results of extensive experimental parametric studies were used in conjunction with circuit and electromagnetic finite element models to optimize the NC sensor design. Long-term exposure tests were used to evaluate the reliability of the passive noncontact sensors. Sensors were embedded in reinforced concrete specimens and successfully detected the onset of corrosion in the adjacent reinforcement. Unlike the traditional corrosion evaluation methods, such as half-cell potentials, the sensors output was insensitive to environmental variations. / text

Electrical conductivity (or resistivity) of cementitious materials is considered to be a fundamental property and is commonly measured using nondestructive and noninvasive testing techniques. Therefore, electrical measurements are gaining popularity in both research and field applications for structural health monitoring and material characterization of civil engineering infrastructure systems. Based on the results of measurements, the engineer can schedule maintenance more accurately and give an early warning of possible structural failure. Recently, health monitoring systems are capable of significantly increasing the cost efficiency of maintenance and repair by helping engineers improve the safety and maintainability of structures through early damage detection. The research team at the University of Texas at Austin developed a low-cost, passive, wireless conductivity sensor system. Sensors are wirelessly interrogated using external reader during inspection over the service life of the structure to monitor the conductivity variations within concrete. The focus of this work is to assess the condition of cementitious materials by measuring electrical conductivity using passive wireless sensors. By analyzing the measured conductivity data, the condition of the cementitious material, such as extent of hydration, setting and hardening times, and transport phenomena, can be assessed. This document also provides comprehensive information on the design, fabrication, interrogation, and response of conductivity sensor platforms. / text

This dissertation presents design challenges and promising solutions for temperature and pressure sensors which are highly desirable for harsh-environment applications, such as turbine engines. To survive the harsh environment consisting of high temperatures above 1000°C, high pressures around 300 psi, and corrosive gases, the sensors are required to be robust both electrically and mechanically. In addition, wire connection of the sensors is a challenging packaging problem, which remains unresolved as of today. In this dissertation, robust ceramic sensors are demonstrated for both high temperature and pressure measurements. Also, the wireless sensors are achieved based on microwave resonators. Two types of temperature sensors are realized using integrated resonator/antennas and reflective patches, respectively. Both types of the sensors utilize alumina substrate which has a temperature-dependent dielectric constant. The temperature in the harsh environment is wirelessly detected by measuring the resonant frequency of the microwave resonator, which is dependent on the substrate permittivity. The integrated resonator/antenna structure minimizes the sensor dimension by adopting a seamless design between the resonator sensor and antenna. This integration technique can be also used to achieve an antenna array integrated with cavity filters. Alternatively, the aforementioned reflective patch sensor works simultaneously as a resonator sensor and a radiation element. Due to its planar structure, the reflective patch sensor is easy for design and fabrication. Both temperature sensors are measured above 1000°C. A pressure sensor is also demonstrated for high-temperature applications. Pressure is detected via the change in resonant frequency of an evanescent-mode resonator which corresponds to cavity deformation under gas pressure. A compact sensor size is achieved with a post loading the cavity resonator and a low-profile antenna connecting to the sensor. Polymer-Derived-Ceramic (PDC) is developed and used for the sensor fabrication. The pressure sensor is characterized under various pressures at high temperatures up to 800°C. In addition, to facilitate sensor characterizations, a robust antenna is developed in order to wirelessly interrogate the sensors. This specially-developed antenna is able to survive a record-setting temperature of 1300°C.

The objective of this thesis is to design and implement a rapid, reconfigurable and portable reader for wirelessly interrogating inductively coupled passive sensors. While the current method of impedance analyzer is sensitive and an accurate, the instruments used are bulky and slow, substantially hampering in-field testing and interrogation of sensors. Current methods cannot provide a quantifiable measure on minimum necessary read-speeds and instrument accuracy desirable for rapid sensing applications. This work summarizes the design and hardware implementation of two reader methods that address the aforementioned requirements. Both reader methods are based on a reflectometer approach: Swept-frequency Reflectometer Reader and Switched-frequency Interrogation Technique (SWIFT). The first method is a much faster alternative to in-lab and in-field testing for structural health monitoring, and is intended as an immediate replacement for the impedance analyzer method. Switched-frequency Interrogation is specifically designed to satisfy the need for rapid and accurate reading, potentially for in-motion sensing applications. This method provides a way of empirically relating minimum necessary read-time required for desired read-ranges. It also facilitates quantification of uncertainty in measurements, which is very critical in determining instrument accuracy in-field. The system design and implementation of both methods are described in detail and experimental results are presented to benchmark the performance of the readers. Issues of instrument reliability and practical limitations are also discussed, with potential solutions. Both methods are intended as universal techniques for wirelessly interrogating coupled passive sensors, not limited to their current form of implementation. / text

Implantable sensors have been extensively investigated to facilitate diagnosis or to provide a means to generated closed loop control of therapy by yielding in vivo measurements of physical and chemical signals. Biodegradable sensors which degrade gradually after they are no longer functionally needed exhibit great potential in acute or shorter-term medical diagnostic and sensing applications due to the advantages of (a) exclusion of the need to a secondary surgery for sensor removal, and (b) reduction of the risk of long-term infection. The objective of this research is to design and characterize microfabricated RF wireless pressure sensors that are made of completely biodegradable materials and degrade at time-controlled manner (in the order of years and months). This was achieved by means of investigation of appropriate biodegradable materials and development of appropriate fabrication processes for these non-standard (Microelectromechanical systems) MEMS materials. Four subareas of research are performed: (1) Design of sensors that operate wirelessly and are made of biodegradable materials. The structure of the wireless sensor consists a very compact and relatively simple design of passive LC resonant circuits embedded in a polymer dielectric package. To design the sensor with a particular resonant frequency range, an electromagnetic model of the sensor and a mechanical model for circular plate are developed. The geometry of the sensor is established based on the analytical and finite element simulations results. (2) Investigation of the biodegradable materials in the application of implantable biodegradable wireless sensors to achieve controllable degradation lifetimes. Commercially available and FDA approved biodegradable polymers poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and a "shell-core" structure of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are utilized as the dielectric package for slow and rapid degradation sensors, respectively. Biodegradable metallic zinc and zinc/iron couples are chosen as conductor materials. The degradation behavior of Zn and Zn/Fe-couple are investigated in vitro. (3) Development of novel fabrication processes. The process exploit the advantages of MEMS technology in fabricating miniaturized devices, while protecting vulnerable biodegradable materials from the strong and/or hazardous chemicals that are commonly used in conventional MEMS fabrication process. These new processes enable the fabrication of biocompatible and biodegradable 3-D devices with embedded, near-hermetic cavities. (4) Testing the pressure response functionality and studying the degradation behavior of the wireless biodegradable pressure sensors. Both PLLA-based and PLGA/PVA-based sensors are characterized in vitro by being immersed in 0.9% saline for prolonged time. All the sensors exhibit three stages of behavior in vitro: equilibration, functional lifetime, and performance degradation. During the functional lifetime, most sensors exhibit fully stable functionality. The PLLA-based sensors show no significant weight loss within 8 month and are expected to fully degrade after 2 years, while the PLGA/PVA-based sensors can degrade completely within 26 days.

Avec l’expansion des exploitations agricoles, le principe d’homogénéité du rendement (céréales, fruits…) devient de moins en moins pertinent. Ce phénomène de variabilité spatiale implique des conséquences économiques et environnementales avec le développement de nouveaux concepts agricoles comme les « site-specific management » (gestion spécifique des parcelles). Les traitements tels que les fertilisants, les intrants et autres pesticides doivent être utilisés de manière différente en les appliquant au bon endroit, à la bonne période et au bon taux. Cette nouvelle façon de penser l’agriculture fait partie de l’agriculture de précision (PA) et se concentre en quatre domaines technologiques : (i) la télédétection, (ii) la navigation et guidage, (iii) la gestion des données et (iv) les technologies à taux variable. Initiée à la fin des années 1990, la viticulture de précision (PV) est une branche particulière de la PA, caractérisée par des problématiques spécifiques à la viticulture. Les travaux effectués durant cette thèse entrent dans le cadre de la télédétection (ou détection proche) appliquée à la PV. Ils se focalisent sur une nouvelle méthode d’estimation de la quantité de grappes (masse ou volume) directement sur les plants de vignes. Pouvoir estimer le rendement des vignes plusieurs semaines avant la récolte offre de nombreux avantages avec des impacts économiques et qualitatifs, avec par exemple : (i) l’amélioration du rapport rendement/qualité en supprimant au plut tôt une partie de la récolte, (ii) l’optimisation des ressources humaines et la logistique à la récolte, (iii) un remboursement le plus équitable par les assurances en cas d’intempéries qui endommageraient les pieds de vignes. La méthode proposée ici repose sur l’imagerie microondes (à 24GHz ou des fréquences plus élevées) générée par un radar FM-CW. Elle implique la mise en place d’un système d’interrogation intra-parcellaire « pied par pied » à distance basé au sol, et en particulier : (i) l’évaluation de la précision des mesures et les limites du système, (ii) le développement d’algorithmes spécifiques pour l’analyse de données tridimensionnelles, (iii) la construction d’estimateurs pour retrouver le volume des grappes, et finalement (iv) l’analyse des données recueillies pendant les campagnes de mesures. Dû au caractère saisonnier des récoltes, les mesures sont en premier lieu effectuées sur des cibles canoniques, des charges variables et des capteurs passifs en laboratoire. Pour mettre en avant la flexibilité de cette interrogation radar, le même système est utilisé en parallèlement dans le cadre du projet régional PRESTIGE, pour compter à distance le nombre de pommes présentes sur les pommiers en verger. Ces travaux ont été financés par l’entreprise Ovalie-Innovation et l’ANRT (Agence Nationale de la Recherche Technologique). / With the expansion of farm operations, the principle of homogeneity of crop yields (cereals, fruits …) becomes less and less relevant. This observation of spatial variabilities implies economic and environmental consequences with the development of new arrangements of agricultural works such as “site-specific management”. Treatments such as fertilizers, nutrients and pesticides must be used differently by applying them at the right time, right place and right rate. This new way to think the agriculture is called precision agriculture (PA) and gathers four technological fields: (i) remote sensing, (ii) navigation and guidance, (iii) data management and (iv) variable-rate technologies. Precision viticulture (PV) is an application of PA which was initiated in the late 90’s and is characterized by issues specific to viticulture. Work carried out during this thesis is a direct application of remote sensing (or proximal sensing) applied to PV. It focuses on a new method of remote sensing of grapes quantity (mass or volume) directly on vine plants. Estimating the quantity of grapes several weeks before harvesting offers many advantages with qualitative and economic impacts such as: (i) improving the yield / quality ratio with an early removal of a part of the harvest, (ii) optimizing human resources and equipment during the grape harvest, and (iii) be fairly compensated by insurances in case of severe weather conditions that damaged the vine plants. The method proposed here relies on microwave imagery (24 GHz and higher) generated by a FM-CW radar. It implies the set-up of ground-based remote reading system for a plant-byplant intra-parcel analysis and particularly: (i) evaluating the measurement accuracy, precision and limits of the system, (ii) developing specific algorithms in order to analyze three-dimensional volume data, (iii) building statistical estimators for retrieving the volume of grapes and finally (iv) analyzing data acquired during field measurements. Because of the seasonality of the grape harvest, measurements are firstly performed on canonic targets, variable loads and passive sensors in laboratory. To enlighten the flexibility of the radar interrogation technique, the same system is also used as part of the regional project PRESTIGE to remotely count the number of apples on trees in orchards. This work has been funding by the company Ovalie-Innovation and the ANRT (Agence Nationale de la Recherche Technologique).