Pelagic clays cover nearly one half of the ocean floor, but are rarely used for paleoceanographic research because of their extremely slow sedimentation rates, post-depositional alteration(s), and the lack of biogenic material available to provide ages. My dissertation develops and applies approaches to study pelagic clays by targeting the largest marine sediment province in the world: the South Pacific Gyre (SPG). I present an unprecedented spatially and temporally extensive paleoceanographic history of the SPG and discuss authigenic processes in pelagic clays that are linked to changes in global seawater composition through the Cenozoic. My research was based on an extensive inorganic geochemical dataset I developed from samples gathered during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 329. I applied multivariate statistical techniques (e.g., Q-mode factor analysis and constrained least squares multiple linear regression (CLS)) to the dataset in order to (a) identify the existence of six end-members in pelagic clay (namely, eolian dust, Fe/Mn-oxyhydroxides, apatite, excess Si, and two types of volcanic ash), (b) quantify their abundances, (c) determine their mass accumulation rates, and (d) infer major features in the paleoceanographic evolution of the SPG. Key parts of my research also developed improved MATLAB codes to facilitate and speed the search for best fitting end-member combinations in CLS modeling. Additionally, I expanded the natural gamma radiation instrumental capabilities on the D/V JOIDES Resolution to quantify concentrations of uranium, thorium, and potassium. I dated the pelagic clay at four of the IODP sites with a cobalt-based age model that I developed, and documented that the seawater behavior of cobalt determines the extent to which this method can be applied. Collectively, the results track the spatial extent of dust deposition in the SPG during the aridification of Australia, dispersed ash accumulation from episodes of Southern Hemisphere volcanism, and other features of Earth’s evolution during the Cenozoic. I further quantified two geochemically distinct types of authigenic ash alterations within the pelagic clay, indicating that altered ashes may be a significant and variable sink of magnesium in seawater over geologic timescales.

Les microorganismes jouent un rôle prépondérant dans le fonctionnement des écosystèmes aquatiques, où ils sont à la base de la minéralisation et du recyclage de la matière organique. Les« vrais » champignons, ou Eumycètes, font partie de ces microorganismes hétérotrophes qui permettent le renouvellement de la matière organique dans les écosystèmes. Pourtant, la diversité et l’importance quantitative et fonctionnelle des champignons restent très largement méconnues dans les milieux pélagiques. Récemment, l’utilisation de méthodes moléculaires pour étudier la diversité des picoeucaryotes (de taille < 5 μm) lacustres a mis en évidence l’importance des champignons microscopiques avec, notamment, la présence de chytridiomycètes (chytrides). Cette découverte, en conjonction avec le rôle important connu des Eumycètes dans d’autres écosystèmes naturels, nous a amené à poser l’hypothèse d’une diversité et d’un rôle fonctionnel importants des champignons dans les écosystèmes pélagiques. Ce travail vise à préciser la diversité globale, la structure génétique et l’importance quantitative des différentes divisions du règne des Eumycota dans les écosystèmes pélagiques lacustres, et à proposer des outils méthodologiques pour l’étude écologique de ces peuplements. La diversité phylogénétique et l’importance des champignons de taille comprise entre 0,6 et 150 μm ont été analysées dans trois milieux pélagiques différents. Une étude de clonage-séquençage de l’ADNr 18S et de l’ITS a été réalisée au printemps 2007 dans les lacs Pavin (oligomésotrophe), Aydat (eutrophe) et Vassivière (mésotrophe, humique). L’affiliation phylogénétique des séquences a permis, non seulement de confirmer la présence d’une importante diversité de chytridiomycètes parasites du phytoplancton, mais aussi de mettre en évidence la présence non négligeable d’ascomycètes et de basidiomycètes, potentiellement saprophytes. L’étude de la dynamique saisonnière de la structure des peuplements (par TRFLP) et de l’importance quantitative de différentes divisions (par PCR quantitative) de la communauté fongique ont permis de déceler des différences en fonction des saisons et de l’écosystème. Ces différences ont été reliées à la dynamique des peuplements phytoplanctoniques, avec une influence des apports allochtones, principalement dans le lac eutrophe d’Aydat. De plus, les séquences moléculaires générées au cours de ces dernières années ont permis l’élaboration d’amorces ciblant des clades de champignons microscopiques d’intérêt, pour une étude écologique de la dynamique des peuplements, par des approches PCR à temps réel et FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization). Enfin, nous considérons que l’acquisition de données complémentaires permettra d’intégrer les champignons saprophytes et parasites dans les flux de matière et d’énergie qui transitent par les écosystèmes pélagiques et les cycles biogéochimiques associés. / Microorganisms play major roles in aquatic ecosystems, primarily as the main actors for organic matter mineralization and recycling. “True” fungi (i.e. Eumycota) are among heterotrophic microorganisms that are highly efficient in recycling organic materials in natural ecosystems. However, the overall diversity of fungi and their quantitative and functional importance remain largely unknown in typical pelagic ecosystems. Environmental 18S rDNA surveys have recently highlighted the importance of microscopic fungi in the diversity of picoeukaryotes (size < 5 μm) in lake ecosystems, including particularly the members of chytridiomycetes (i.e. chytrids) as the dominant phyla. These studies and the known major roles of fungi in natural ecosystems such as soils have leaded us to venture the hypothesis that fungal diversity and functional roles are important structuring factors in pelagic ecosystems. The main aims of the thesis were to examine the overall diversity, genetic structure and quantitative importance of various phyla belonging to the Kingdom Fungi in freshwater pelagic ecosystems. Methodological tools were also developed for ecological investigations of fungal populations of interest. Phylogenetic diversity and quantitative importance of fungi (size classe: 0.6 and 150 μm) were analysed in three contrasting pelagic lakes. Environmental 18S and ITS rDNA surveys were performed during spring 2007 in the oligomesotrophic Lake Pavin, the eutrophic Lake Aydat, and the mesotrophic and humic Lake Vassivière, all located in the French Massif Central. Phylogenetic affiliation of sequences confirmed the presence and the substantial diversity of chytridiomycetes, known as parasites of primarily phytoplankton. We also have unveiled a sizeable number of sequences belonging to the fungal lineages of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, mainly known as saprophytes. The seasonal dynamics of fungal community structure (essayed by TRFLP),and the quantitative importance of various taxonomic divisions (estimates by real time quantitative PCR or qPCR), revealed significant differences with seasons and with ecosystems. These differences were linked to phytoplankton composition and population successions, with at times the influence of allochthonous inputs, primarily for the eutrophic Lake Aydat. Finally, molecular sequences obtained during the few past years allowed the development of primers for targeting microscopic fungal lineages of interest, and the ecological study of their in situ dynamics using qPCR and FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) approaches. Overall, we consider that the acquisition of complementary data is necessary to allow the inclusion of fungi and their main functions (i.e. saprophytisms and parasitism) in the energy and matter fluxes in pelagics ecosystems, and the related biogeochemical cycling.

Os sedimentos costeiros são importantes globalmente, pois atuam como receptores de grandes quantidades de material orgânico alóctone e autóctone, sendo responsáveis por cerca de 90% do enterramento de carbono no oceano global. Dentro dos ecossistemas de plataforma continental, a fauna bêntica desempenha papel vital tanto como receptora de energia proveniente do pelagial, quanto como fornecedora de energia para os organismos demersais e de nutrientes para o fitoplâncton. O objetivo principal do presente trabalho foi investigar a variação temporal da dinâmica da macrofauna bêntica na plataforma interna de Ubatuba. A dinâmica bêntica foi analisada pela abundância, biomassa, descritores da comunidade (riqueza, diversidade, equitatividade) e análise trófica dos grupos mais abundantes, em função da origem e composição da matéria orgânica sedimentar. As coletas foram realizadas mensalmente em uma estação fixa, com início em outubro de 2006, por um período de um ano. A estação fixa possui uma profundidade de 40 m e um regime oceanográfico de transição entre águas costeiras e de plataforma continental. A composição da matéria orgânica em termos de MOT, fitopigmentos, fitodetritos e biomarcadores lipídicos apresentou uma complexidade típica de ambientes de plataforma interna, relacionados à dinâmica oceanográfica que rege os principais eventos de acúmulo ou remoção da matéria orgânica lábil na região de Ubatuba. A composição dos biomarcadores lipídicos presentes no sedimento evidenciou que a matéria orgânica particulada na região de plataforma interna de Ubatuba possui uma origem principalmente autóctone, e que está constituída por uma combinação de material derivado do plâncton vivo ou detrítico, da produção bacteriana e da fauna associada ao sedimento, havendo uma contribuição terrestre relativamente pequena. O presente estudo indicou que a dinâmica bêntica na região da plataforma interna de Ubatuba é moldada por forçantes ambientais, como a intrusão de massas dágua (e.g. ACAS) trazendo nutrientes para a zona fótica e estimulando a produção primária fitoplanctônica nova, induzindo o aumento na densidade e biomassa bêntica. A chegada de frentes frias, com ventos fortes, mistura da coluna dágua e revolvimento do fundo também possui fundamental importância, através do decréscimo nos valores dos parâmetros da comunidade bêntica. Esse padrão de acúmulo e remoção sugere que a biota bêntica da plataforma interna de Ubatuba esteja numa constante dinâmica de colonização e recolonização, que pode ser chave na manutenção de altos níveis de riqueza e equitatividade na região. Os resultados obtidos no presente estudo sugerem um íntimo e complexo acoplamento bentopelágico dependente, por um lado, de eventos oceanográficos de mesoescala (i.e. centenas de km; intrusão da ACAS) e, por outro, de eventos atmosféricos que influenciam o sistema bêntico em escala local, através da ressuspensão de sedimentos. / Coastal sediments are globally important for their role in the carbon cycle, being responsible for about 90% of the carbon burial in the global ocean. In continental shelf ecosystems, benthic communities play a vital role receiving energy from the pelagic system, serving as food source for demersal organisms, recycling nutrients back to the water column and sequestering part of the carbon into deeper layers of marine sediments. The present study aimed to investigate the variation on the dynamics of the benthic macrofauna on the inner shelf off Ubatuba-SP. Benthic macrofauna abundance, biomass, species richness, diversity, equitability and polychaete trophic groups were compared with the origin and composition of sedimentary organic matter. Sampling was carried out on a monthly basis starting in October 2006 for a year in a permanent station at 40 meters depth. The area is characterized by a transition between coastal and oceanic regimens. Sedimentary organic matter composition in terms of total organic matter, lipid biomarkers and phytopigments and phytodetritus showed a complexity typical from inner shelves and was driven by oceanic and atmospheric dynamics. Lipid biomarker composition revealed that particulated organic matter was mainly derived from autochthonous sources, composed of a combination of material derived from live plankton and detritic remains, bacterial production and from the benthic metazoan fauna. Terrestrial contribution to the sediment organic matter was small. The present study indicated that the benthic dynamics in the inner shelf off Ubatuba is molded by environmental forcing, especially the intrusion of water masses onto the shelf (e.g. ACAS), which brings nutrients to the euphotic zone stimulating new phytoplanktonic primary production. This enhances the flux of organic matter to the bottom increasing the benthic biota density and biomass. The arrival of cold fronts, with strong S-SW winds promoting water column mixing and sediment resuspension, was also fundamental in decreasing benthic community parameters (i.e. abundance and biomass). The dynamics of organic matter accumulation and removal suggest that the benthic biota in the inner shelf of Ubatuba is subjected to a constant pattern of settling and recolonization, which can be a key factor in the maintenance of high levels of species richness and equitability. The results obtained in the present study suggest a strong and complex benthic-pelagic coupling, influenced by mesoescale oceanographic events (i.e. hundreds of km; intrusion of ACAS) on the one hand and, on the other, by atmospheric events influencing the benthic system on a local scale, through the remobilization of sediments.

The ability to manage a fish stock relies on an understanding of life history characteristics and basic biology of the species. Numerous age-growth studies are facilitated by the relative ease of ageing fishes through hard-part analyses. Determining reproductive parameters for fish populations is equally important for stock assessments and management, and histological examination of gonads provides the most accurate determination of fecundity and spawning periods. Coastal pelagic fishes are often targeted commercially and recreationally due to their easy access by private vessels. However, there are few studies researching the biology and reproduction of recreational fishes in the waters of Southeastern Florida that would lead to a better understanding for management practices. The objective of this study was to provide baseline reproductive data for two fishes particularly important to Florida fisheries: the coastal pelagic scombrids Blackfin Tuna Thunnus atlanticus and Little Tunny Euthynnus alletteratus. Archived gonad samples from 2010-2014 for these two species were evaluated, and GSI values and histological examination indicated one spawning season for both species. Little Tunny spawn April through August, and Blackfin Tuna spawn May through June. Additionally both species have asynchronous oocyte development, and are batch spawners. Postovulatory follicles were used to estimate spawning frequency; for Blackfin Tuna, mean spawning occurs once every 1.49 days, and for Little Tunny, mean spawning occurs once every 1.47 days. Comparison of otolith age data to these results indicates that Little Tunny mature at a smaller size and younger age than Blackfin Tuna. Size at 50% maturity for male Blackfin Tuna was 435.2 mm TL, for female Blackfin Tuna was 392.3 mm TL, and for male Little Tunny was 347.77 mm TL. Age at 50% majority for male Blackfin Tuna was 0.66 years, and for male Little Tunny was 0.50 years. In addition to providing important baseline data for fisheries management, this study collaborated with previous research to improve accuracy of reproductive age assessments. Finally, reproductive parameter studies of fishes in Florida and the Greater Caribbean area commercial and recreational fisheries provide information important for future ecosystem based management.

Catch per unit effort (CPUE) is a quantitative method used to describe fisheries worldwide. CPUE can be presented as number of fish per 1000 hooks, number of fish per amount of fishing time, or with any unit of effort that best describes the fishery (e.g., search time, hooks per hour, number of trawls). CPUE is commonly used as an index to estimate relative abundance for a population. These indices are then applied within stock assessments so that fisheries managers can make justified decisions for how to manage a particular stock or fishery using options such as quotas, catch limitations, gear and license restrictions, or closed areas. For commercial pelagic longline (PLL) fisheries, onboard observer data are considered the only reliable data available due to the large-scale movements of highly migratory species (HMS) like tunas and because of the high costs associated with fisheries independent surveys. Unfortunately, fishery-reported logbook data are heavily biased in favor of the target species and the expense of onboard observers results in a low percentage of fleet coverage. Subsequently, CPUE derived from fishery-dependent data tends to overestimate relative abundance for highly migratory species. The spatial distribution of fish and fishing effort is essential for understanding the proportionality between CPUE and stock abundance. A spatial metric was created (SCPUE) for individual gear deployments using observer-based catch and effort data from the western North Atlantic PLL fleet. SCPUE was found to be less variable than CPUE when used as an index of relative abundance, suggesting that SCPUE could serve as an improved index of relative abundance within stock assessments because it explicitly incorporates spatial information obtained directly from the fishing location. Areas of concentrated fishing effort and fine-scale aggregations of target and non-target fishes were identified using the optimized hot spot analysis tool in ArcGIS (10.2). This SCPUE method describes particular areas of fishing activity in terms of localized fish density, thus eliminating the assumption that all fish in a population are dispersed evenly within statistical management zones. The SCPUE metric could also assist fisheries management by identifying particular areas of concern for HMS and delineating boundaries for time-area closures, marine protected areas, and essential fish habitat.

Following the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill event, there was a critical need to assess the effects of the oil and dispersant chemicals on the coastal pelagic fish complex in the Gulf of Mexico and the Florida Straits. The objective of this study was to determine if spilled crude oil and dispersant chemicals have posed an ecological risk to the coastal pelagic fish complex through the detection of vitellogenesis. Crude oil containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dispersant chemicals and other estrogen-mimicking compounds are suspected to induce vitellogenin production in male and immature female fish, normally only produced by sexually mature females. Blood plasma and surface mucus were collected from wild-caught adult and juvenile males and females from as many representative coastal pelagic species as possible (including yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares and swordfish Xiphias gladius). To create a control for this experiment, crevalle jacks (Caranx hippos) and lookdowns (Selene vomer) were injected with estradiol-17β (10 μg/g body weight) into the peritoneal cavity to induce vitellogenesis, regardless of sex or reproductive stage. The mucus and blood plasma of each injected fish was collected 7 to 11 days post-injection. Mucus and blood plasma samples of wild-caught and experimentally-injected fishes were separated using sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, stained with a phosphoprotein specific fluorescent dye (Pro-Q Diamond®), and visualized through ultraviolet transillumination. Vitellogenin was visibly detectable in the mucus collected from the control-injected fish, suggesting a disruption in the endocrine system as a result of estrogen exposure (estradiol-17β). However, there were no elevated levels of vitellogenin detected in any wild-caught fish mucus or blood plasma samples, indicating no vitellogenesis. From this, we infer that there has been no detectable endocrine disruption to the sampled coastal pelagic fish complex in the Gulf of Mexico two years after the start of the spill.

Two differently structured food webs can be distinguished in the pelagic habitat of aquatic systems; the classical one (autotrophic) with phytoplankton as a base and the microbial food web (heterotrophic) with bacteria as a base. Energy (produced at the basal trophic level) reaches higher trophic levels, i.e. zooplankton, directly in the classical food web in contrast to the microbial food web where it passes through additional trophic levels before reaching zooplankton. Energy is lost between each trophic level and therefore less energy should reach higher trophic levels in the microbial food web than in the classical food web. However, factors such as edibility of prey, temperature and properties of the predator, might also influence the food web structures and functions. In this thesis I studied which factors are important for an efficient carbon transfer and how a potential climate change might alter the food web efficiency in pelagic and pelagic-benthic food webs in the Baltic Sea. Furthermore, one of the most dominant zooplankton in the northern Baltic Sea, Limnocalanus macrurus, was studied in order to establish the seasonal pattern of lipid reserves in relation to food consumption. My studies showed that the carbon transfer efficiency during summer was not directly connected to the basal production, but factors such as the ratio between heterotrophs and autotrophs, the relationship between cladocerans and calanoid copepods and the size and community structure of both phytoplankton and zooplankton were important for the carbon transfer efficiency. In a climate change perspective, the temperature as well as the relative importance of the microbial food web is likely to increase. A temperature increase may have a positive effect on the pelagic food web efficiency, whereas increasing heterotrophy will have a negative effect on the pelagic and pelagic-benthic food web efficiency, reduce the fatty acid content of zooplankton and reduce the individual weight of both zooplankton and the benthic amphipod Monoporeia affinis. During the seasonal study on the calanoid copepod L. macrurus, I found that this species is mainly a carnivore, feeding on mesozooplankton during most of the year but switches to feeding on phytoplankton when these are abundant. Furthermore, when food is scarce, it utilizes lipids that are built up during the course of the year. From these studies I can draw some major conclusions; there are many factors that influence how efficient carbon is transferred in the food web and different factors are probably of various importance in different areas. In order to determine the carbon transfer efficiency, the various strategies exerted by different organism groups have to be considered, as for example that some zooplankton utilize lipid reserves instead of feeding all year around. Also, in a climate change perspective, the pelagic-benthic food web efficiency will decrease, as will the quality of zooplankton and M. affinis, possibly having implications for higher trophic levels such as fish.

The majority of lakes on Earth are shallow, unproductive and located at high latitudes. These lakes are experiencing big changes due to climate change, where two environmental drivers operate simultaneously, browning and warming. How they affect lake ecosystems is not well understood. Here, I addressed this issue by using a theoretical and an experimental approach. In particular, I generated model predictions and compared them with the results of a realistic large-scale experiment, where browning and warming were manipulated in a factorial design. In addition, model outcomes were compared with data from 12 unproductive lakes sampled along a gradient of browning. Another novelty of my thesis is that it integrates benthic and pelagic food web components in the model and experimental approaches. I found that browning affected the resources availability for benthic and pelagic producers in the model and in the experiment. With browning, benthic primary producers became increasingly light limited and declined, while pelagic producers became less nutrient limited and increased. Pelagic nutrient limitation was alleviated by two non-exclusive mechanisms. Browning directly enriched the water with nutrients, and browning indirectly increased the nutrient flowing from the sediment to the pelagic habitat via suppression of benthic producers. To tease apart these two mechanisms I applied structural equation modeling (SEM). The indirect evidence by SEM suggests that both mechanisms contributed equally to the pelagic nutrient concentration in the experiment. Interestingly, a model food web with only primary producers shows similar qualitative behavior as a food web with grazers and carnivores included. This happens because carnivorous fish exert strong top-down control in the more productive habitat, which relaxes grazing pressure on primary producers and increases resource limitation in the adjacent habitat. Biomass of benthic and pelagic consumers followed the same pattern as their resources. The lake data were largely congruent with model expectations and supported the findings of the experiment. Furthermore, the model also predicted a negative relationship between total phosphorus and both primary and fish production, which was observed across the 12 lakes. Warming effects were more complex. The model predicts that warming effects should depend on browning and are expected to be strongest in the more productive of the two (benthic and pelagic) habitats. For example, at low levels of browning the biomasses of benthic algae and fish are expected to decline with warming, which was observed in the experiment. In contrast, observed warming effects at high levels of browning deviated from model expectations. The mechanisms by which browning and warming interactively affect lake food webs are still poorly understood. This thesis offers a conceptual foundation for their further study through the integration of within- and between-habitat interactions.

A description of species abundance, richness and distribution, and eye size of heteropod molluscs from the families Pterotracheidae and Carinariidae in the oligotrophic ecosystem of the northern Gulf of Mexico (GOM) is described based on discrete-depth sampling protocols. The collections were comprised from two midwater sampling programs conducted sequentially after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill (DWHOS): the Offshore Nekton Sampling and Analysis Program (ONSAP, 2011) and the Deep Pelagic Nekton Dynamics of the Gulf of Mexico (DEEPEND, 2015-2018). Study materials from DEEPEND were collected during the initial five cruises of 2015-2017. These programs collected over 3,495 heteropods in two target families from 46 sampling stations in the northern GOM. We studied five species from the superfamily Pterotracheoidea (the families Carinariidae and Pterotracheidae). The family Pterotracheidae (Pterotrachea coronata, P. hippocampus and P. scutata) were the most abundant and largest specimens examined. The zone along the northeastern GOM continental slope had the greatest species richness and abundances. The study found evidence of diel migration in P. coronata and P. scutata. We compared body size with depth of occurrence to evaluate possible ontogenic habitat shifts. The largest Cardiapoda placenta (>30 mm) and Pterotrachea coronata (>150 mm) were found only in the upper 600 m. No significant ontogenic patterns were obvious in the other four species. We evaluated eye size at capture depth for each species. There was no evidence of eye size increasing with depth among the five species. We compared eye diameter with body length and found that heteropods have consistent and similar eye sizes per species throughout the depth of the measured water column and relative eye size is species-specific. We identified that pterotracheids have smaller eyes than carinariids relative to their total body size. This finding was opposing to our expectation of eye size differences among migrators and non- migrators. This is the first comprehensive large heteropod study in the northern GOM.

Coral reef fish are known to have a bipartite life cycle: a dispersive pelagic larval phase (DPL), where larvae ‘travel’ away from their parents to occupy new habitats, and a sedentary reef phase characterized by juveniles and adults. Study of the DPL is an essential prerequisite to understand how persistence, connectivity, and gene flow operate between populations. Clownfish have been the subject of considerably varied fields of research in recent decades, not only due to their economic value, but also because of their ease of maintenance in laboratory settings, regular spawning, and short DPL. Their life cycle is also defined as bipartite, with a DPL lasting around 15 days until settlement, and the fish exhibit a symbiotic relationship with sea anemones. The transitions between phases are associated with a series of morphological, behavioural, genetic, cellular and molecular changes. However, these changes are poorly characterized in some species of clownfish. Therefore, the Red Sea clownfish, Amphiprion bicinctus, was reared to fill the gap in the literature by investigating their i) morphology, ii) swimming abilities, and iii) differential gene expression (DGE) throughout ontogeny. The DPL was characterized in the preflexion, flexion and postflexion stages, according to flexion of the notochord, on 0, 2 and 10 days post hatch (dph), respectively. Metamorphosis was defined by a morphological transition between the DPL and juvenile phases, associated with the appearance of white stripes, on day 10 and until the end of the experiment, on day 14. Additionally, metamorphosis is followed by a behavioural change at 14 dph, called settlement, where larvae transition from free swimming in the water column to associating with the substrate. We also demonstrate that the larvae present active swimming from the moment they hatch, and the swimming speed increases throughout DPL. Overall, the development of A. bicinctus is similar to other clownfish species. This work provides a strong baseline on the development of A. bicinctus, which may open the door to a deeper understanding of the role of dispersal behaviours and enhance our ability to design effective marine reserve networks in the Red Sea.