Toxicological and forensic applications of analytical chemistry provide both interesting and unique opportunities for analytical chemists to hone their skills and push their abilities. Modern analytical chemistry has afforded researchers the ability to probe into the intricate pathways of biochemical processes by systematic identification and characterization of biologically relevant compounds. Unfortunately, often due to the restrictive specifications of the instrumentation used, it is necessary to remove those compounds from their natural environments such that their structure and at the very least the significance of those compounds may not be fully recognized. The work described herein identifies and characterizes two biologically relevant arsenic and selenium containing species. These species were synthesized and identified in environments that are very similar to those found in vivo. The use of chemical information contained within a small arms cartridge has seen extremely limited use by forensic laboratories despite the wealth of chemical information that may be useful in differentiating between cartridges of various manufacturers. The study herein uses the elemental composition of small arms rifle primers to develop a multivariate model against which unknown primers were compared and ultimately classified. The FBI's practice of elemental analysis of small arms projectiles has recently come under fire as the result of an ex-FBI metallurgist's research study which concluded that the trace elements analyzed were too rigidly controlled by Pb smelters and therefore not useful in distinguishing between batches of ammunition. The scientific community is now scrutinizing the practice with a National Academy of Science review of the FBI's practices. Unlike the trace elements utilized by the FBI for distinguishing between projectiles of various "origins" Pb isotopic signature is not controlled by smelters and should, even in the case of recycled Pb, vary when Pb from differing origins is utilized for the manufacture of small arms projectiles. The study described herein shows that Pb isotopic analysis of small arms projectiles from various regions of the world is useful for differentiating between small arms projectiles and in limited cases may even be useful in determining the geographic origin of projectile manufacture.

Examinations of juvenile violence have largely been limited in both the scope of behaviors studied and the variety of theories used to explain these actions. This study addresses these issues by applying a test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory of crime to an examination of a wide range of violent and intimidating acts. Specifically, the effects of self-control and opportunity on bullying, righting and weapon related behaviors are tested. This analysis finds that greater self-control, as measured by a combination of attitudinal and behavioral items, significantly decreases all forms of intimidation and violence examined. Similarly, greater opportunity, operationalized as a combination of parental supervision, participation in unstructured activities, and peer deviance, increases each form of behavior. In addition, each model provides support for the theoretically based hypothesis that greater self-control decreases opportunity. Therefore, this study provides a great deal of support for self-control theory.

This study examines characteristics of those who desist from compared to those who persist in delinquency over a two year span. Stability of antisocial behavior is a well accepted finding in the social sciences. In addition, many other individual characteristics associated with crime, such as impulsivity, are considered to be stable. These individual characteristics also show a relationship to long term negative outcomes of adult criminality and poor work history. Other variables that correlate with adolescent delinquency are parental monitoring, peer deviancy, and school attachment. While there is stability in antisocial behavior, there is also change; many individuals desist from delinquency as they age. Participants in this study were adolescents involved in a longitudinal study (N = 278). Results show a high degree of stability in delinquency as well as in other correlates of delinquency. Parental monitoring, peer deviancy, and school attachment are all related to delinquency, yet when the subjects are divided into persisters (n = 73) versus desisters (n = 35), these same variables are not significantly related to desistance. This suggests that the variables related to onset may be different from those related to desistance from delinquency. Nonetheless, if one takes a more dynamic perspective of this relationship, change can be seen. Change in impulsivity, risk taking, temper, peer substance use, and school attachment relates to a deceleration in delinquent activity. Results are discussed from a developmental perspective.

Estimation of skeletal age at death is based on the premise that osseous tissue undergoes predictable and patterned changes through the life of the individual that can be quantified and accurately correlated with skeletal age. The utility of any method of estimating skeletal age at death is dependent on two basic principles. First, the descriptive parameters of the method must account for the range of phenotypic variation observed at the skeletal site. Second, the method must be accurate when applied to an unknown individual, regardless of the individual's unique life history. This study examines the reliability and accuracy of the sternal end of the fourth rib method for the determination of skeletal age at death and explores whether chronic substance abuse alters the pattern of change at the sternal end of the fourth rib. Additional variables considered include gender, race and the presence of thoracic disease. One hundred and fifty five sets of ribs, obtained during forensic autopsy, are examined and age at death determined in two separate trials. All antemortem data, with the exception of gender, are collected following completion of rib examination in order to prevent biasing the observer. Reliability (intra-observer error) and accuracy are computed utilizing the kappa statistic. The results suggest that the sternal end of the fourth rib is a reliable but not an accurate method of determining skeletal age at death. The variables of sex, race, and thoracic disease all influence the accuracy of the method. Chronic substance abuse appears to influence both the reliability and the accuracy of the method.

Structural equation modeling and hierarchical linear modeling were used to examine the effects of citizen participation in crime prevention programs and fear of crime among residents in Japan. The democratic and efficient management of the programs by citizen leaders, and their adequate support by the police, were found to increase the commitment of residents to crime prevention activities. Further, a sense of personal control over the neighborhood was found to mediate much more of the amount of the impact of these organizational factors on the commitment of residents to crime prevention activities than was the perceived social cohesion of the neighborhood. By contrast, perceived social cohesion was found to significantly decrease the fear of crime among residents, although it did not mediate a substantial amount of the alleviating effects of support by police on the fear of crime. The cross-cultural and policy implications are discussed.

In recent years, the American public has become increasingly fascinated by criminal profiling. Despite the popularity of criminal profiling, however, evidence of its accuracy and utility in serving the various phases of the criminal justice process has not been scientifically demonstrated. Historically portrayed as an art, profiling has increasingly been represented as a science by profiling practitioners, even in the absence of a body of scientific literature to support such a representation. The purpose of this book is twofold: First, the state of criminal profiling today will be critically examined. This examination will include a discussion of the scientific and practical limits of existing approaches and the scientific and practice implications of these limitations for the field of profiling. Next, given the limits of the extant profiling models, this book will discuss the steps necessary for building a science of profiling. It is hoped that collectively these chapters will enable profiling to emerge as a credible and respected field that ultimately will significantly advance law enforcement investigations.

<p> Study considered the differential effectiveness of standard substance abuse treatment for persons with actual histories of drug use vs. those who have been arrested for drug trafficking, possession, dealing, delivery, manufacture, or sale. Dataset contained 1,348 subjects who had completed drug and alcohol treatment. Mean age was 33; 2/3 of subjects were male, 1/3 female; ethnic mix was well rounded. The researcher identified 77 outcome variables within 12 outcome categories. Of the 77, 64 trended as predicted, suggesting poorer outcomes for drug traffickers vs. substance users. A Chi Square was computed on trend data and was highly statistically significant. A MANOVA was then computed, considering each of the 64 outcome variables, with two covariates: 1) number of days during the three months post treatment that the individual was in a controlled environment; and 2) severity of alcohol and drug abuse at time of treatment commencement. The overall MANOVA was highly statistically significant, indicating that drug trafficking has a pure effect on poorer treatment outcomes. ANOVAs were computer to contrast drug traffickers vs. substance users on each of the 64 individual outcome variables, using a Bonferroni corrected alpha level. In five of 12 outcome categories, one or more outcome measures differed significantly between traffickers and users. The five categories with significantly different outcomes were Continued Alcohol/Drug Use, Reinstitutionalization, Environmental Issues, High Risk Sexual Behaviors, and Relationship Issues. Why drug traffickers are receiving treatment designed for substance users, and treatment alternatives for drug traffickers along with costs and policy implications are considered. Keywords: substance use, drug trafficking, treatment, outcomes, substance abuse</p>

<p> Research suggests that sexual abuse (SA) increases the likelihood of alcohol/drug use (AOD), and that AOD increases criminality. As such, in this study 50 women completed a survey reporting their histories of SA, AOD, and criminality. Fifteen related hypotheses were formulated: age at which drug abuse began would be lower; total number of drugs used, higher; age of first crime, lower; age of first incarceration, lower; and cumulative time in prison, greater, for those with SA vs. those without, for those who did not report their SA vs. those who did, and for those who did not receive treatment for SA vs. those who did. Thirteen of 15 hypotheses trended as predicted, significantly different from chance using Chi square. Trends for those who did not report SA vs. those who did, and for those who did not receive treatment for SA vs. those who did, were universally in line with hypotheses. Hypotheses regarding those with SA vs. those without remain less clear, with three of five outcome measures trending as expected. Together, these findings suggest that it may not be an SA history in itself that predicts earlier and greater severity of AOD, earlier criminal behavior, and greater prison time; but that the lack of treatment for SA and lack of reporting of SA may predict earlier and more severe behavioral disruptions. This underscores the importance of supporting girls and women who experience SA with access to reporting and treatment to reduce the emotional and behavioral sequellae of SA. </p><p> Keywords: substance use, sexual abuse, criminality, alcohol use</p>

<p> This review of the literature explored the particular risks facing children between the ages of 0-18 with incarcerated mothers who are also involved in the child welfare system, the programs and social support services available to them, and the effectiveness of the existing types of programs in the United States working with child welfare agencies towards the reunification of mothers with their children. This literature review analyzed the content of22 empirically researched articles from the last 15 years. Results of this literature review found that children with incarcerated mothers show higher rates of problem behaviors, including delinquency, psychosocial maladjustment, and school difficulties. Additionally, studies showed that while social support services and programs are available to incarcerated mothers and children, a comprehensive strategy needs to be created between child welfare and criminal justice systems to develop uniform methods for information-sharing and coordination of services that foster family reunification on a national level.</p>

<p> The purpose of this project was to design a transitional program for emancipated crossover youth, identify potential funding sources, and write a grant application for the nonprofit agency: New Roads for New Visions. An extensive literature review identified several risk factors and outcomes with respect to crossover youth. Risk factors for becoming a crossover youth include child maltreatment, placement instability, mental health issues, and substance use. Literature on related outcomes reported difficulties with education, reliance on public welfare, mental health problems, substance use behaviors, and high recidivism rates. This proposed program will offer extensive case management services to assist crossover youth in becoming independent adults. The selected potential funding source for this grant is the Public Welfare Foundation, Inc., which promotes the rights of underprivileged populations. The implications for social work practice are provided, and the submission and/or funding of the grant was not a requirement for completion of this project. </p>