Middle childhood is a dynamic period in children’s lives marked by a host of dramatic and concomitant physical, cognitive, and social changes. Typically, during this time, fundamental motor skills improve and children develop sport-specific forms of those skills as they participate in active physical recreation. This participation occurs in expanding social worlds, and changes in children’s cognitive development heightens their ability to reflect on their successes and failures in those contexts. This dissertation examined some of these concomitant changes and interactions longitudinally in three related studies among approximately 450 children from grade 2 to grade 5. In Study 1, “Perceptions matter! Accuracy of perceived physical competence in middle childhood and the impact on active physical recreation participation,” I found that children’s self-perceptions of their physical abilities became more accurate by grade 3, and that children with both positive perceptions and high motor skills participated in the most active physical recreation. Contrastingly, children with less positive self-perceptions, whether they had relatively high or low motor skills, participated in less active physical recreation. The expanding social worlds of children were explored in Study 2, “Social contexts and participation in recreational activities across middle childhood.” Supporting what had been theorized for children, I found significant expansion in with whom and where children participated across the grades, including a significant increase in children’s participation by themselves and with friends, and a concomitant decrease in activities with their family. Overall, however, children still spent the largest proportion of their recreational time with their family in each grade. Lastly, in Study 3, “Latent profile analysis of children’s active physical recreation patterns in middle childhood,” I identified unique profiles of children from grade 2 to grade 5 based on combinations of motor skills, perceptions of physical competence, social contexts, and active physical recreation. Two consistent profiles of children persisted across the grades: one of children on a path toward active physical recreation engagement, and one seemingly at risk of disengagement. Ultimately, however, I discovered that with each subsequent grade came increasing diversity in children’s profiles, highlighting the need for tailored programs that can accommodate children’s individual differences. The findings from these three studies confirm that middle childhood is a dynamic time where children experience a multitude of changes. Overall, I found that children are developing cognitively as evidenced by improvements in accuracy, and socially, as evidenced by expanding social networks. Physically, in terms of motor skill development, children were not optimally developing, which is concerning. Three concrete recommendations arising from this work relate to (a) children who underestimate their abilities; (b) the early engagement of many children in organized sports; and (c) how perceptions of physical competence are used in physical activity research during middle childhood. Approximately one-quarter of children underestimated their physical abilities, and of great concern was their lack of motor skill improvement from grade 2 to grade 5. Along with opportunities to develop their motor proficiency, children who underestimate their abilities, need instructors in active recreation contexts to point out, affirm, and confirm their actual abilities. The second recommendation relates to the early participation of a majority of children in organized sports in the community. As such, children were participating in formal physical activities, such as team sports, during a turbulent time in the development of their self-appraisals. Leaders and family members need to ensure that the expectations they convey to children are realistic. Further, children will benefit from activities and learning opportunities that are meaningful and provide choices that are suited to their current skill and confidence levels. Finally, when examining children’s physical self-perceptions during middle childhood, researchers should consider the expected developmental trajectory of the accuracy of those self-perceptions. A drop in perceptions of physical competence levels among children with inflated self-perceptions at the beginning of middle childhood is expected as these perceptions become more accurate. Overlooking this expected developmental trajectory may confound research findings, particularly if self-perceptions are an outcome measure. / Graduate

O foco desta pesquisa desenvolvimental, de delineamento transversal, foi investigar a relação entre a percepção de competência atlética, a orientação motivacional e a competência motora de crianças. Especificamente, verificou-se também a relação entre gêneros e idades nas três variáveis. A amostra desta pesquisa foi aleatória, composta por 298 crianças (50% meninos e 50% meninas) com idade entre 8 e 10 anos, estudantes de escolas estaduais da cidade de São Leopoldo-RS. Como instrumentos utilizou-se as escalas de Harter: Self-perception profile for children (1985) e A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom (1980); e o Test of Gross Motor Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). Para a análise das relações entre as variáveis, foi utilizado teste de correlação de Pearson; e, para investigar possíveis diferenças entre os gêneros e as idades, foi utilizado o teste estatístico One Way ANOVA. Os resultados indicaram que (1) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras eram motivados intrinsecamente a realizar atividades motoras; (2) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras demonstraram-se mais competentes motoramente; (3) os meninos perceberam-se mais competentes motoramente do que as meninas; (4) as percepções de competência atlética apresentaram-se semelhantes para as crianças de 8 a 10 anos; (5) meninos e meninas apresentaram orientação motivacional semelhante; (6) crianças de 10 anos demonstraram motivação intrínseca mais elevada do que crianças de 8 anos; (7) os meninos evidenciaram competência motora superior quando comparados às meninas; (8) crianças de 8 a 10 anos apresentaram níveis similares de competência motora. Conclui-se que crianças que se percebem competentes atleticamente, são motivadas intrinsecamente a se engajar em uma atividade, e, consequentemente, são competentes motoramente. O professor de educação física deve proporcionar experiências motoras variadas que aumentem progressivamente o desempenho motor das crianças, para que as crianças construam sua percepção de competência atlética e mantenham e fortaleçam sua motivação intrínseca nas aulas de educação física. / The purpose of this cross-sectional, developmental study was to explore the relationship between perceived physical competence, motivacional orientation, and motor performance in children. The relationship between genders and ages in the three variables were also examined. The sample was composed of 298 public-school students (50% boys and 50% girls) with ages between 8 and 10 years, of the city of São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil. To evaluate perceived physical competence, the Harter’s scale (1985) – Self-perception profile for children – was used; to evaluate motivacional orientation, another Harter’s scale (1980) – A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom – was used; and motor performance was assessed by administering the Test of Motor Gross Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). To examine the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation tests were used. The One-Way ANOVA statistical test was used to investigate at the differences among gender and ages in the three variables. Results indicated that: (1) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years old who perceived their own competence in motor performance are intrinsic motivated to participate in motor activities; (2) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years who perceived their own competence in motor performance demonstrated high motor performance; (3) boys perceived themselves more motor competent than girls; (4) physical competence perceptions showed to be similar for 8-10 year-old children; (5) boys and girls demonstrated similar motivacional orientation; (6) 10 year-old children demonstrated more elevated intrinsic motivation than 8 year-old children; (7) boys evidenced superior motor competent when compared to girls; (8) 8-10 year-old children demonstrated similar motor performance. The present study demonstrated the necessity to qualify the children’s motor experiences, providing them with varied motor activities, as well as instruction, correct feedback, and encouragement from the teacher so that they could form their own perception of physical competence, based on their motor performance and intrinsic motivated to participate and to persist in the motor activities in which they are engaged.

O foco desta pesquisa desenvolvimental, de delineamento transversal, foi investigar a relação entre a percepção de competência atlética, a orientação motivacional e a competência motora de crianças. Especificamente, verificou-se também a relação entre gêneros e idades nas três variáveis. A amostra desta pesquisa foi aleatória, composta por 298 crianças (50% meninos e 50% meninas) com idade entre 8 e 10 anos, estudantes de escolas estaduais da cidade de São Leopoldo-RS. Como instrumentos utilizou-se as escalas de Harter: Self-perception profile for children (1985) e A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom (1980); e o Test of Gross Motor Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). Para a análise das relações entre as variáveis, foi utilizado teste de correlação de Pearson; e, para investigar possíveis diferenças entre os gêneros e as idades, foi utilizado o teste estatístico One Way ANOVA. Os resultados indicaram que (1) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras eram motivados intrinsecamente a realizar atividades motoras; (2) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras demonstraram-se mais competentes motoramente; (3) os meninos perceberam-se mais competentes motoramente do que as meninas; (4) as percepções de competência atlética apresentaram-se semelhantes para as crianças de 8 a 10 anos; (5) meninos e meninas apresentaram orientação motivacional semelhante; (6) crianças de 10 anos demonstraram motivação intrínseca mais elevada do que crianças de 8 anos; (7) os meninos evidenciaram competência motora superior quando comparados às meninas; (8) crianças de 8 a 10 anos apresentaram níveis similares de competência motora. Conclui-se que crianças que se percebem competentes atleticamente, são motivadas intrinsecamente a se engajar em uma atividade, e, consequentemente, são competentes motoramente. O professor de educação física deve proporcionar experiências motoras variadas que aumentem progressivamente o desempenho motor das crianças, para que as crianças construam sua percepção de competência atlética e mantenham e fortaleçam sua motivação intrínseca nas aulas de educação física. / The purpose of this cross-sectional, developmental study was to explore the relationship between perceived physical competence, motivacional orientation, and motor performance in children. The relationship between genders and ages in the three variables were also examined. The sample was composed of 298 public-school students (50% boys and 50% girls) with ages between 8 and 10 years, of the city of São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil. To evaluate perceived physical competence, the Harter’s scale (1985) – Self-perception profile for children – was used; to evaluate motivacional orientation, another Harter’s scale (1980) – A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom – was used; and motor performance was assessed by administering the Test of Motor Gross Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). To examine the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation tests were used. The One-Way ANOVA statistical test was used to investigate at the differences among gender and ages in the three variables. Results indicated that: (1) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years old who perceived their own competence in motor performance are intrinsic motivated to participate in motor activities; (2) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years who perceived their own competence in motor performance demonstrated high motor performance; (3) boys perceived themselves more motor competent than girls; (4) physical competence perceptions showed to be similar for 8-10 year-old children; (5) boys and girls demonstrated similar motivacional orientation; (6) 10 year-old children demonstrated more elevated intrinsic motivation than 8 year-old children; (7) boys evidenced superior motor competent when compared to girls; (8) 8-10 year-old children demonstrated similar motor performance. The present study demonstrated the necessity to qualify the children’s motor experiences, providing them with varied motor activities, as well as instruction, correct feedback, and encouragement from the teacher so that they could form their own perception of physical competence, based on their motor performance and intrinsic motivated to participate and to persist in the motor activities in which they are engaged.

O foco desta pesquisa desenvolvimental, de delineamento transversal, foi investigar a relação entre a percepção de competência atlética, a orientação motivacional e a competência motora de crianças. Especificamente, verificou-se também a relação entre gêneros e idades nas três variáveis. A amostra desta pesquisa foi aleatória, composta por 298 crianças (50% meninos e 50% meninas) com idade entre 8 e 10 anos, estudantes de escolas estaduais da cidade de São Leopoldo-RS. Como instrumentos utilizou-se as escalas de Harter: Self-perception profile for children (1985) e A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom (1980); e o Test of Gross Motor Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). Para a análise das relações entre as variáveis, foi utilizado teste de correlação de Pearson; e, para investigar possíveis diferenças entre os gêneros e as idades, foi utilizado o teste estatístico One Way ANOVA. Os resultados indicaram que (1) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras eram motivados intrinsecamente a realizar atividades motoras; (2) meninos e meninas de 8 a 10 anos que se perceberam competentes nas habilidades motoras demonstraram-se mais competentes motoramente; (3) os meninos perceberam-se mais competentes motoramente do que as meninas; (4) as percepções de competência atlética apresentaram-se semelhantes para as crianças de 8 a 10 anos; (5) meninos e meninas apresentaram orientação motivacional semelhante; (6) crianças de 10 anos demonstraram motivação intrínseca mais elevada do que crianças de 8 anos; (7) os meninos evidenciaram competência motora superior quando comparados às meninas; (8) crianças de 8 a 10 anos apresentaram níveis similares de competência motora. Conclui-se que crianças que se percebem competentes atleticamente, são motivadas intrinsecamente a se engajar em uma atividade, e, consequentemente, são competentes motoramente. O professor de educação física deve proporcionar experiências motoras variadas que aumentem progressivamente o desempenho motor das crianças, para que as crianças construam sua percepção de competência atlética e mantenham e fortaleçam sua motivação intrínseca nas aulas de educação física. / The purpose of this cross-sectional, developmental study was to explore the relationship between perceived physical competence, motivacional orientation, and motor performance in children. The relationship between genders and ages in the three variables were also examined. The sample was composed of 298 public-school students (50% boys and 50% girls) with ages between 8 and 10 years, of the city of São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil. To evaluate perceived physical competence, the Harter’s scale (1985) – Self-perception profile for children – was used; to evaluate motivacional orientation, another Harter’s scale (1980) – A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom – was used; and motor performance was assessed by administering the Test of Motor Gross Development - 2 (TGMD-2) (ULRICH, 2000). To examine the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation tests were used. The One-Way ANOVA statistical test was used to investigate at the differences among gender and ages in the three variables. Results indicated that: (1) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years old who perceived their own competence in motor performance are intrinsic motivated to participate in motor activities; (2) boys and girls of 8 to 10 years who perceived their own competence in motor performance demonstrated high motor performance; (3) boys perceived themselves more motor competent than girls; (4) physical competence perceptions showed to be similar for 8-10 year-old children; (5) boys and girls demonstrated similar motivacional orientation; (6) 10 year-old children demonstrated more elevated intrinsic motivation than 8 year-old children; (7) boys evidenced superior motor competent when compared to girls; (8) 8-10 year-old children demonstrated similar motor performance. The present study demonstrated the necessity to qualify the children’s motor experiences, providing them with varied motor activities, as well as instruction, correct feedback, and encouragement from the teacher so that they could form their own perception of physical competence, based on their motor performance and intrinsic motivated to participate and to persist in the motor activities in which they are engaged.

Canadian children have policy and infrastructure rich environments, but their physical activity levels are among the lowest in the world. The disconnection between opportunities to be active and actual physical activity suggests that factors other than policies and resources need to be investigated in the Canadian context. Finding ways to increase physical activity levels is critical in order for children to obtain adequate levels throughout childhood. Fundamental motor skill proficiency and positive perceptions of physical competence have been previously identified as factors that may contribute to physical activity engagement across childhood. This dissertation examined the developmental trajectories of fundamental motor skill proficiency (FMS), perceptions of physical competence (PPC), physical activity (MVPA), and sedentary behaviour (SB) from kindergarten to grade 2, in both cross-sectional and longitudinal samples of children. Three interrelated studies were conducted to address the overall purpose. The aim of study 1 was to examine the change in the relationship between fundamental motor skill proficiency and perceptions of physical competence from early to the beginning of middle childhood. The Test of Gross Motor Development–2 (TGMD- 2) and The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children were used to measure FMS and PPC from kindergarten to grade 2 (n=250). Motor skills improved from kindergarten to grade 2, while PPC was high in both kindergarten and grade 2. Mixed design analyses of variance revealed overall significant effects for object control skills and PPC from kindergarten to grade 2. Furthermore, boys had higher object control skills and girls had higher locomotor skills and perceived physical competence. The aim of study 2 was to examine the levels of physical activity and sedentary behaviours sequentially from kindergarten to grade 2. A sample of 176 cross-sectional and 21 longitudinal participants wore Actigraph GT1M accelerometers for ≥ 10hrs per day for 7 days to measure physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Physical activity levels were lower in grade 2, while sedentary behaviour was higher. Pearson product- moment correlations revealed sedentary behaviour tracked more consistently over time than MVPA or total physical activity. The aim of study 3 was to examine whether perceptions of physical competence mediated the relationship between motor competence as the predictor variable and both physical activity and sedentary behaviour as dependent variables among children in grade 2 or 3. The TGMD-2 measured FMS and Actigraph GT1M accelerometers measured physical activity and sedentary behaviour for 129 grade 2–3 children. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children and The Self- Perception Profile for Children were used to assess PPC. Overall, PPC did not mediate the relationship between object control skills and MVPA or SB. Also, the path between object control skills and MVPA was significant for boys as were the paths between MVPA and SB for boys and girls. / Graduate