The undesirable expansion of concrete because of a reaction between alkalis and certain type of reactive siliceous aggregates, known as alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), continues to be a major problem across the entire world. The renewed interest to minimize distress resulting from ASR has emphasized the need to develop predictable modeling of concrete ASR behavior under field conditions. Current test methods are either incapable or need long testing periods in which to only offer rather limited predictive estimates of ASR behavior in a narrow and impractical band of field conditions. Therefore, an attempt has been made to formulate a robust performance approach based upon basic properties of aggregate and concrete ASR materials derived from dilatometry and a kinetic-based mathematical expressions for ASR behavior. Because ASR is largely an alkali as well as a thermally activated process, the use of rate theory (an Arrhenius relationship between temperature and the alkali solution concentration) on the dilatometer time-expansion relationship, provides a fundamental aggregate ASR material property known as “activation energy.” Activation energy is an indicator of aggregate reactivity which is a function of alkalinity, particle size, crystallinity, calcium concentration, and others. The studied concrete ASR material properties represent a combined effects of mixture related properties (e.g., water-cementitious ratio, porosity, presence of supplementary cementitious materials, etc.) and maturity. Therefore, the proposed performance-based approach provides a direct accountability for a variety of factors that affect ASR, such as aggregate reactivity (activation energy), temperature, moisture, calcium concentration, solution alkalinity, and water-cementitious material ratio. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusion can be drawn concerning the performance-based approach to evaluate ASR potential of aggregate and concrete using dilatometer method; (i) the concept of activation energy can be used to represent the reactivity of aggregate subjected to ASR, (ii) the activation energy depends on the reactivity of aggregate and phenomenological alkalinity of test solution, and (iii) The proposed performance-based model provides a means to predict ASR expansion development in concrete.

The undesirable expansion of concrete because of a reaction between alkalis and certain type of reactive siliceous aggregates, known as alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), continues to be a major problem across the entire world. The renewed interest to minimize distress resulting from ASR has emphasized the need to develop predictable modeling of concrete ASR behavior under field conditions. Current test methods are either incapable or need long testing periods in which to only offer rather limited predictive estimates of ASR behavior in a narrow and impractical band of field conditions. Therefore, an attempt has been made to formulate a robust performance approach based upon basic properties of aggregate and concrete ASR materials derived from dilatometry and a kinetic-based mathematical expressions for ASR behavior. Because ASR is largely an alkali as well as a thermally activated process, the use of rate theory (an Arrhenius relationship between temperature and the alkali solution concentration) on the dilatometer time-expansion relationship, provides a fundamental aggregate ASR material property known as “activation energy.” Activation energy is an indicator of aggregate reactivity which is a function of alkalinity, particle size, crystallinity, calcium concentration, and others. The studied concrete ASR material properties represent a combined effects of mixture related properties (e.g., water-cementitious ratio, porosity, presence of supplementary cementitious materials, etc.) and maturity. Therefore, the proposed performance-based approach provides a direct accountability for a variety of factors that affect ASR, such as aggregate reactivity (activation energy), temperature, moisture, calcium concentration, solution alkalinity, and water-cementitious material ratio. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusion can be drawn concerning the performance-based approach to evaluate ASR potential of aggregate and concrete using dilatometer method; (i) the concept of activation energy can be used to represent the reactivity of aggregate subjected to ASR, (ii) the activation energy depends on the reactivity of aggregate and phenomenological alkalinity of test solution, and (iii) The proposed performance-based model provides a means to predict ASR expansion development in concrete.

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La fabrication du ciment, par sa phase de clinkérisation, est très énergivore et émet une quantité importante de gaz à effet de serre dans l'atmosphère. En effet, la production d'une tonne de clinker génère environ une tonne de CO2. Afin de réduire ces émissions, une des alternatives est l'utilisation des additions minérales dans la confection des bétons en remplacement partiel du ciment. Cette substitution apparait comme une des solutions les plus efficaces permettant à la fois de diminuer l'énergie consommée et de réduire le dégagement de CO2 dans l'atmosphère. Cette étude s'inscrit dans un projet plus global de développement des bétons de bâtiment à matrices binaires (ciment + additions) s'appuyant sur des critères de propriétés de transfert. En effet, afin de répondre à certaines exigences de durabilité, une campagne expérimentale a été menée sur des bétons confectionnés selon la norme européenne NF EN 206 qui autorise deux méthodes de formulation : * l'approche dite prescriptive, qui porte sur des obligations de moyens, * l'approche dite performantielle, qui consiste à fixer des exigences en terme de performances basées sur des indicateurs généraux ou spécifiques de durabilité. Ce travail de recherche a donc consisté à comparer les propriétés physico-chimiques de bétons à forte teneur en addition minérale (filler calcaire, cendre volante, laitier de haut fourneau et métakaolin), dérogeant à l'approche prescriptive avec celles des bétons de référence répondant à cette même norme. Cette comparaison s'est effectuée au travers d'indicateurs de durabilité généraux (porosité accessible à l'eau, perméabilité à l'oxygène, coefficient de migration des ions chlorure et teneur en Ca(OH)2) et d'indicateurs spécifiques : la résistance à la carbonatation naturelle et accélérée. D'un point de vue méthodologique, les travaux réalisés dans le cadre de cette recherche ont montré l'intérêt de l'approche performantielle pour la formulation des bétons. Mais, à l'heure actuelle, les outils disponibles, c'est à dire les indicateurs généraux et spécifiques, ne sont pas suffisants pour répondre à l'ensemble des bétons couvrant ce texte normatif. A l'échelle du matériau (béton pour une application en bâtiment), les campagnes expérimentales menées ont montré que dans la majorité des cas, les bétons à forte teneur en addition minérale (dérogeant aux spécifications) présentent des comportements proches de ceux observés sur les bétons de référence (répondant à l'approche prescriptive). / The manufacturing of cement, by its clinkering process, is very energy-consuming and emits an important quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (1 ton of clinker produced 1 ton of CO2 released into the atmosphere). To maximize this latter from an environmental point of view, it is necessary to reduce the cement content. This can be done by replacing part of the cement with mineral additives during the manufacturing phase. This substitution seems one of the most effective solutions allowing, at the same time, to decrease the energy consumed and to reduce the release of CO2 into the atmosphere. This study is part of a more comprehensive development project of concrete building binary matrices (cement + mineral additives) based on transfer properties criteria. Indeed, in order to answer certain sustainability requirements, an experimental campaign was conducted on concrete, made according to the new European standard (EN 206) that allows two methods of formulation: * a traditional prescriptive approach, based on limiting values for the composition (minimum binder content, maximum water to binder ratio, compressive strength class...) of concrete exposed to some aggressive environmental conditions, * an innovative method based on a performance approach for concrete properties. The present work aims at studying the physico-chemical properties of cementitious materials with high substitution rates of cement by mineral additions (limestone filler, fly ash, slag, metakaolin) derogating from the prescriptive approach with reference to concrete corresponding to the same standard. This comparison was made with general durability indicators (water porosity, oxygen permeability, chloride migration coefficient and portlandite content) and specific durability indicators: carbonation in natural and accelerated conditions. From a methodological point of view, the research carried out in the framework of this project has shown the interest of the performance-based approach with regards to the concrete formulation. But at the moment, the available tools, namely the general and specific indicators, are not sufficient to respond to all these types of concrete. However, considering the performance, economic and environmental criteria, laboratory results showed that concrete made according to a performance-based approach had a performance close to reference concrete and the standard prescription could still be reassessed.

Les ciments sulfoalumineux (CSA) peuvent être une solution à l’amélioration de l’impact environnemental des bétons, grâce aux faibles consommations énergétiques et émissions de CO2 lors de leur fabrication. Leurs propriétés expansives, de rapidité de prise et de montée en résistance participent également à l’intérêt grandissant dans les domaines de la construction et de la préfabrication en béton pour ce type de liant. Toutefois, la durabilité des bétons sulfoalumineux reste encore méconnue ou discutée, notamment en milieux acides et face à la corrosion des armatures, en ambiance marine et par carbonatation. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse se proposent ainsi d’étudier et de comparer la durabilité face à ces attaques, de bétons sulfoalumineux à celle de bétons de référence à base de CEM I et de CEM III/B. Ils s’appuient sur des caractérisations performantielles (indicateurs de durabilité, essais performantiels en conditions accélérées ou naturelles) et microstructurales (phases solides, porosité). Au préalable, l’application des caractérisations sus-citées aux bétons sulfoalumineux est vérifiée et discutée. La bonne résistance des bétons sulfoalumineux aux milieux acides est observée lors d’essais de lixiviation dynamique, à température et pH régulés. L’étude de la pénétration des chlorures (migration en régime permanent et transitoire, isothermes de fixation, exposition en zone de marnage) et de la carbonatation (naturelle et accélérée) de bétons à base de 8 ciments sulfoalumineux de laboratoire différents a permis d’établir des moyens d’améliorer leur durabilité potentielle. Ces moyens ont été appliqués à la fabrication d’un ciment industriel performant, dont la bonne durabilité reste toutefois à confirmer définitivement en conditions réelles. / Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements can be a solution to improve the environmental impact of concrete, thanks to the lower energy consumption and CO2 emission during their production. Their expansive, fast setting and rapid hardening properties contribute to the growing interest of engineers for concrete construction and prefabrication. However, the durability of sulfoaluminate concretes is not clearly assessed yet, especially in acidic and marine environments, as well as carbonation and chloride induced rebars corrosion. Thus, the aim of this thesis is to study and compare the durability, related to these attacks, of concretes made with CSA cements to ordinary Portland and GGBS cements based reference concretes. This study is founded on microstructural (solid phases, porosity) and performancial (durability indicators, natural and accelerated tests) characterization. Beforehand, the application of these characterizations to CSA concretes is verified and discussed. These show a good resistance to acidic environments when submitted to dynamic leaching tests at pH 3 and 5. The study of chloride ingress (steady and non-steady state migration, binding isotherms and tidal zone exposition) and carbonation (natural and accelerated) in concretes of 8 different laboratory CSA cements enabled us to find achievable means to improve their potential durability. These means were applied to the production of a performant industrial CSA cement, whose good durability has still to be assessed on field conditions.

[ES] Los edificios históricos tienen un gran valor arquitectónico y cultural y son un bien muy preciado de nuestra civilización. Por ello, no es de extrañar que se hagan grandes esfuerzos para conservarlos. Sin embargo, a pesar de los avances en la investigación, el fuego sigue siendo una amenaza importante para lograr la conservación del patrimonio construido. Además, los códigos de incendios actuales no suelen proporcionar directrices o métodos específicos que tengan en cuenta las características únicas de los edificios históricos. En consecuencia, conseguir que estos edificios cumplan la normativa de seguridad contra incendios evitando al mismo tiempo la pérdida de patrimonio supone un gran reto. En este contexto, la presente tesis doctoral se centra en el análisis de la resistencia frente al fuego de los forjados de viguetas de madera y revoltones de ladrillos, que pueden encontrarse en muchos edificios históricos de todo el mundo, utilizando enfoques deterministas y probabilistas basados en el rendimiento. Además, la tesis propone modelos probabilísticos para caracterizar las propiedades físicas y mecánicas de la madera contemporánea e histórica a temperatura ambiente y a temperaturas elevadas, que se adoptan en dichos enfoques probabilistas. Debido a la singular geometría y configuración estructural de estos forjados históricos, los métodos establecidos por los códigos de incendios actuales para verificar su resistencia frente al fuego no son aplicables. Por ello, se propone una nueva metodología basada en el "Método de la sección reducida" de la actual EN 1995-1-2. A continuación, la metodología se aplica a un amplio número de forjados que abarcan diferentes luces, resistencias a flexión de la madera y exposiciones al fuego para evaluar la influencia de estos parámetros en la resistencia frente al fuego. Posteriormente, debido al considerable número de parámetros de entrada con una alta incertidumbre que influyen en la resistencia frente al fuego de los forjados de viguetas de madera y revoltones de ladrillos, se adopta un enfoque probabilístico. El análisis asume diferentes secciones transversales y luces para los forjados históricos, así como múltiples geometrías del sector de incendio. Además, considera la incertidumbre de las cargas permanentes y variables aplicadas, así como de las propiedades físicas y mecánicas de la madera a temperatura ambiente y a altas temperaturas. De este modo, en base a un gran número de simulaciones numéricas, se desarrollan curvas de fragilidad y se obtienen los índices de fiabilidad de los forjados históricos frente al fuego. Los resultados muestran que, aunque los enfoques probabilísticos pueden ayudar a preservar un número significativamente mayor de forjados históricos de viguetas de madera y revoltones de ladrillos, muchos de ellos pueden no cumplir los requisitos de resistencia frente al fuego establecidos por los códigos actuales, lo que es motivo de preocupación. Por lo tanto, llevar a cabo estos análisis resulta esencial para garantizar su resistencia frente al fuego y tomar medidas en caso necesario. En definitiva, esta tesis doctoral pretende promover la conservación racional de las estructuras históricas de madera y, en consecuencia, del patrimonio construido. Además, se prevé que los modelos deterministas y probabilistas propuestos también permitan el diseño de estructuras de madera más fiables y eficientes. Así, fomentando la rehabilitación frente a la demolición y la nueva construcción e incentivando el uso de la madera en nuevas estructuras, se puede contribuir también a la mejora de la sostenibilidad del sector de la construcción. Por último, se espera que esta tesis sirva para concienciar sobre la alta vulnerabilidad de los edificios históricos frente al fuego y, en última instancia, para fomentar futuras investigaciones encaminadas a la búsqueda de soluciones que permitan cumplir los requisitos de seguridad contra incendios sin comprometer el patrimonio existente. / [CA] Els edificis històrics tenen un gran valor arquitectònic i cultural i són un bé molt preuat de la nostra civilització. Per això, no és d'estranyar que es facen grans esforços per a conservar-los. No obstant això, malgrat els avanços en la investigació, el foc continua sent una amenaça important per a aconseguir la conservació del patrimoni construït. A més, els codis d'incendis actuals no solen proporcionar directrius o mètodes específics que tinguen en compte les característiques úniques dels edificis històrics. En conseqüència, aconseguir que estos edificis complisquen la normativa de seguretat contra incendis evitant al mateix temps la pèrdua de patrimoni suposa un gran repte. En este context, la present tesi doctoral se centra en l'anàlisi de la resistència al foc dels forjats de biguetes de fusta i revoltons de rajoles, que poden trobar-se en molts edificis històrics de tot el món, utilitzant enfocaments deterministes i probabilistes basats en el rendiment. A més, la tesi proposa models probabilístics per a caracteritzar les propietats físiques i mecàniques de la fusta contemporània i històrica a temperatura ambient i a temperatures elevades, que després s'adopten en els enfocaments probabilistes. A causa de la singular geometria i configuració estructural d'estos forjats històrics, els mètodes establits pels codis d'incendis actuals per a verificar la seua resistència al foc no són aplicables. Per això, es proposa una nova metodologia basada en el "Mètode de la secció reduïda" de l'actual EN 1995-1-2. A continuació, la metodologia s'aplica a un ampli nombre de forjats que abasten diferents llums, resistències a flexió de la fusta i exposicions al foc per a avaluar la influència d'estos paràmetres en la resistència al foc. Posteriorment, a causa del considerable nombre de paràmetres d'entrada amb una alta incertesa que influïxen en la resistència al foc dels forjats de biguetes de fusta i revoltons de rajoles, s'adopta un enfocament probabilístic. L'anàlisi assumix diferents seccions transversals i llums per als forjats històrics, així com múltiples geometries del sector d'incendi. A més, considera la incertesa de les càrregues permanents i variables aplicades, així com de les propietats físiques i mecàniques de la fusta a temperatura ambient i a temperatures elevades. D'esta manera, a partir d'un gran nombre de simulacions numèriques, es desenvolupen corbes de fragilitat i s'obtenen els índexs de fiabilitat dels forjats històrics davant del foc. Els resultats mostren que, encara que els enfocaments probabilístics poden ajudar a preservar un nombre significativament major de forjats històrics de biguetes de fusta i revoltons de rajoles, molts d'ells poden no complir els requisits de resistència al foc establits pels codis actuals, la qual cosa és motiu de preocupació. Per tant, dur a terme estes anàlisis resulta essencial per a garantir la seua resistència al foc i prendre mesures en cas necessari. En definitiva, esta tesi doctoral pretén promoure la conservació racional de les estructures històriques de fusta i, en conseqüència, del patrimoni construït. A més, es preveu que els models deterministes i probabilistes proposats també permeten el disseny d'estructures de fusta més fiables i eficients. D'esta manera, fomentant la rehabilitació per sobre de la demolició i la nova construcció i incentivant l'ús de la fusta en noves estructures, es pot contribuir també a la millora de la sostenibilitat del sector de la construcció. Finalment, s'espera que la present tesi doctoral servisca per a conscienciar sobre l'alta vulnerabilitat dels edificis històrics davant del foc i, en última instància, per a fomentar futures investigacions encaminades a la cerca de solucions que permeten complir els requisits de seguretat contra incendis sense comprometre el patrimoni existent. / [EN] Historic buildings hold significant architectural and cultural value and are a precious asset of our civilisation. It is therefore not surprising that great efforts are being made to preserve them. However, despite advances in research, fire remains a major threat to achieve the conservation of the built heritage. In addition, current fire codes generally do not provide specific guidelines or methods that address the unique characteristics of historic buildings. Consequently, bringing these buildings into compliance with fire safety regulations while avoiding heritage loss is a great challenge. In this context, the present doctoral thesis focuses on the analysis of the fire resistance of timber jack arch flooring systems, which can be found in many historic buildings around the world, using deterministic and probabilistic performance-based approaches. Furthermore, the thesis proposes probabilistic models to characterise the physical and mechanical properties of contemporary and historic timber at ambient and elevated temperatures, which are then adopted in such probabilistic approaches. Due to the singular geometry and structural configuration of these historic flooring systems, the methods established by current fire codes to verify their fire resistance are not applicable. Thus, a new methodology based on the "Reduced cross-section method" of the current EN 1995-1-2 is proposed. Then, the methodology is applied to a wide number of flooring systems covering different span lengths, timber bending strengths, and fire exposures to evaluate the influence of these parameters on the fire resistance. Subsequently, due to the considerable number of input parameters with high uncertainty that influence the fire resistance of timber jack arch flooring systems, a probabilistic approach is adopted. The analysis assumes different cross-sections, span lengths and geometries of the compartment where the fire occurs. Moreover, uncertainty in the applied permanent and live loads, as well as in the physical and mechanical properties of timber at ambient and elevated temperatures, is considered. Thus, based on a large number of numerical simulations, fire fragility functions are developed and the reliability indices of the historic flooring systems against fire are derived. The results of the fire resistance analyses show that, although probabilistic approaches can help to preserve significantly more historic timber jack arch flooring systems, many of them may not meet the fire resistance requirements set by current codes, which is a cause for concern. Conducting these analyses is therefore essential to ensure their fire resistance and take action where necessary. In summary, this doctoral thesis aims to promote the rational conservation of historic timber structures and, consequently, of the built heritage. Moreover, it is envisaged that the proposed deterministic and probabilistic models will also enable the design of more reliable and efficient timber structures. Thus, by fostering rehabilitation over demolition and new construction and by encouraging the use of timber in new structures, a more sustainable construction can also be achieved. Finally, the present doctoral thesis is expected to raise awareness of the high vulnerability of historic buildings to fire and, ultimately, encourage future research aimed at finding solutions that allow fire safety requirements to be met without compromising the existing heritage. / García Castillo, E. (2024). Analysis of the fire resistance of traditional timber flooring systems in historic buildings [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207365