Esta trabalho apresenta a análise e implementação de uma técnica inteligente, o algoritmo genético (AG), para implementação de unidades de medição fasoriais, denominadas PMUs (Phasor Measurement Units). A disponibilidade dos fasores em diversos pontos de um sistema elétrico de potência (SEP) é importante, tanto para monitoramento quanto para controle, proteção e estudo do sistema. Entretanto, a obtenção de tais fasores só têm sentido se os mesmos possuírem o mesmo referencial no tempo. Este referencial é conseguido através de sinais de satélites GPS (Global Positioning System) que sincronizam as PMUs instaladas nos pontos de interesse. Existe uma vasta quantidade de m´métodos que podem ser utilizados para que, de posse das formas de onda discretizadas de tensão e corrente, estime-se os fasores correspondentes e as frequências locais. Este projeto apresenta os AGs como ferramenta de estimação para a obtenção de uma PMU com todas as vantagens relativas a tais algoritmos. Além disso, uma versão do AG que utiliza menos recursos computacionais , o algoritmo genético compacto (AGc) também será estudado. Um estudo norteado pela norma internacional C37.118 compara o desempenho dos AGs com dois métodos tradicionais de medição fasorial, um baseado na transformada discreta de Fourier e outro baseado em um filtro phase-locked loop. Dados sintéticos e provenientes de simulações são utilizados para avaliar o desempenho dos algoritmos desenvolvidos. Para tirar vantagem da natureza paralela dos algoritmos genéticos, um estudo da implementação do AGc em FPGA (field programmable gate array) utilizando a linguagem VHDL e realizado a fim de estudar a implementação embarcada em PMUs. / This work presents the implementation and analysis of an intelligent technique, the genetic algorithm (GA), for the implementation of phasor measurement units (PMUs). The estimation of phasors in several spots in an electrical power system is important for the monitoring, control, protection and study of this system. However, these phasors must be in a common time reference in order to be usefull. This reference is achieved by using signals provided by the Global Positioning System (GPS) that synchronize the PMUs installed in the system. There are several techniques that can be used to estimate the phasors and local frequency using current and voltage wave signals. This project introduces the GAs as a phasor estimation tool applied to PMUs. Besides that, a version of the GA that demands less computational resources, the compact Genetic Algorithm is studied and implemented. A detailed study is performed using the international standard C37.118 as a guide comparing the GAs with two traditional techniques. The two traditional techniques are based on the DFT (Discrete Fourier transform) and a phaselocked loop filter (PLL). Synthetic and simulated data is used to evaluate the performance of the implemented algorithms. In order to take advantage of the parallel behavior of the genetic algorithms, a study of its implementation in FPGA (field programmable gate array) using the VHDL language is performed to make the genetic algorithms useful in real PMUs.

Esta trabalho apresenta a análise e implementação de uma técnica inteligente, o algoritmo genético (AG), para implementação de unidades de medição fasoriais, denominadas PMUs (Phasor Measurement Units). A disponibilidade dos fasores em diversos pontos de um sistema elétrico de potência (SEP) é importante, tanto para monitoramento quanto para controle, proteção e estudo do sistema. Entretanto, a obtenção de tais fasores só têm sentido se os mesmos possuírem o mesmo referencial no tempo. Este referencial é conseguido através de sinais de satélites GPS (Global Positioning System) que sincronizam as PMUs instaladas nos pontos de interesse. Existe uma vasta quantidade de m´métodos que podem ser utilizados para que, de posse das formas de onda discretizadas de tensão e corrente, estime-se os fasores correspondentes e as frequências locais. Este projeto apresenta os AGs como ferramenta de estimação para a obtenção de uma PMU com todas as vantagens relativas a tais algoritmos. Além disso, uma versão do AG que utiliza menos recursos computacionais , o algoritmo genético compacto (AGc) também será estudado. Um estudo norteado pela norma internacional C37.118 compara o desempenho dos AGs com dois métodos tradicionais de medição fasorial, um baseado na transformada discreta de Fourier e outro baseado em um filtro phase-locked loop. Dados sintéticos e provenientes de simulações são utilizados para avaliar o desempenho dos algoritmos desenvolvidos. Para tirar vantagem da natureza paralela dos algoritmos genéticos, um estudo da implementação do AGc em FPGA (field programmable gate array) utilizando a linguagem VHDL e realizado a fim de estudar a implementação embarcada em PMUs. / This work presents the implementation and analysis of an intelligent technique, the genetic algorithm (GA), for the implementation of phasor measurement units (PMUs). The estimation of phasors in several spots in an electrical power system is important for the monitoring, control, protection and study of this system. However, these phasors must be in a common time reference in order to be usefull. This reference is achieved by using signals provided by the Global Positioning System (GPS) that synchronize the PMUs installed in the system. There are several techniques that can be used to estimate the phasors and local frequency using current and voltage wave signals. This project introduces the GAs as a phasor estimation tool applied to PMUs. Besides that, a version of the GA that demands less computational resources, the compact Genetic Algorithm is studied and implemented. A detailed study is performed using the international standard C37.118 as a guide comparing the GAs with two traditional techniques. The two traditional techniques are based on the DFT (Discrete Fourier transform) and a phaselocked loop filter (PLL). Synthetic and simulated data is used to evaluate the performance of the implemented algorithms. In order to take advantage of the parallel behavior of the genetic algorithms, a study of its implementation in FPGA (field programmable gate array) using the VHDL language is performed to make the genetic algorithms useful in real PMUs.

This dissertation studies the performance of synchrophasor measurement obtained using substation Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) and proposes new algorithms and test methodology to improve and verify their performance when used in power system applications. To improve the dynamic performance when exposed to sinusoidal waveform distortions, such as modulation, frequency drift, abrupt change in magnitude, etc, an adaptive approach for accurately estimating phasors while eliminating the effect of various transient disturbances on voltages and currents is proposed. The algorithm pre-analyzes the waveform spanning the window of observation to identify and localize the discontinuities which affect the accuracy of phasor computation. A quadratic polynomial signal model is used to improve the accuracy of phasor estimates during power oscillations. Extensive experimental results demonstrate the advantages. This algorithm can also be used as reference algorithm for testing the performance of the devices extracting synchronized phasor measurements. A novel approach for estimating the phasor parameters, namely frequency, magnitude and angle in real time based on a newly constructed recursive wavelet transform is developed. This algorithm is capable of estimating the phasor parameters in a quarter cycle of an input signal. It features fast response and achieves high accuracy over a wide range of frequency deviations. The signal sampling rate and data window size can be selected to meet desirable application requirements, such as fast response, high accuracy and low computational burden. In addition, an approach for eliminating a decaying DC component, which has significant impact on estimating phasors, is proposed using recursive wavelet transform. This dissertation develops test methodology and tools for evaluating the conformance to standard-define performance for synchrophasor measurements. An interleaving technique applied on output phasors can equivalently increase the reporting rate and can precisely depict the transient behavior of a synchrophasor unit under the step input. A reference phasor estimator is developed and implemented. Various types of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and PMU-enabled IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices) and time synchronization options have been tested against the standards using the proposed algorithm. Test results demonstrate the effectiveness and advantages.

The power grid is interconnected in many ways; so that when disturbances occur in a small region, their effects can be seen across large areas causing major blackouts. In order to isolate the fault, measurements taken at different times throughout the blackout need to be collected and analyzed. With each measurement device having its own time source, time alignment can be a quite tedious and lengthy process. The need for a new time synchronized measurement device has arrived. The Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) is not only GPS time synchronized, but it also takes measurements as voltage and current phasors. PMUs are becoming an integral part in many power system applications from load flow analysis and state estimation to analyzing blackout causes. Phasor Data Concentrators (PDC) collect and process PMU data. As such, it is important that PMU and PDC communication is seamless. PDCs are set up at multiple utilities and power authorities and also need to be able to communicate and send data to one another seamlessly to encompass analysis of large measurement systems. If these devices are not working similarly when processing and sending/receiving data, unnecessary problems may arise. Therefore it is important that there is an expectation as to how they should work. However, what is expected from these devices is not entirely clear. For this reason, standards such as IEEE C37.118.2-2011 [5] have been proposed to help make operation as uniform as possible. Unfortunately, the standards for PDCs are lacking and tend to only set up communication protocols. To help normalize PDCs, these standards need to be expanded to include all PDC operations and give little room for discrepancy as to what a PDC should do in any given situation. Tests have been performed on PDCs not only to see how they match up to current standards but on how they act outside of the standards. / Master of Science

Today's electric power system is operated under increasingly stressed conditions. As electrical demand increases, the existing grid is operated closer to its stable operating limits while maintaining high reliability of electric power delivery to its customers. Protective schemes are designed to account for pressures towards unstable operation, but there is always a tradeoff between security and dependability of this protection. Adaptive relaying schemes that can change or modify their operation based on prevailing system conditions are an example of a protective scheme increasing reliability of the power system. The purpose of this thesis is to validate and analyze implementation of the Security-Dependability Adaptive Voting Scheme. It is demonstrated that this scheme can be implemented with a select few Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) reporting positive sequence currents to a Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC). At the PDC, the state of the power system is defined as Stressed or Safe and a set of relays either vote or perform normal operation, respectively. The Adaptive Voting Scheme was implemented using two configurations: hardware- and software-based PDC solutions. Each was shown to be functional, effective, and practical for implementation. Practicality was based on the latency of Wide Area Measurement (WAM) devices and the added latency of relay voting operation during Stressed conditions. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs), Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs), and relay operation delays were quantified to determine the benefits and limitations of WAMS protection and implementation of the voting scheme. It is proposed that the delays injected into the existing protection schemes would have minimal effect on the voting scheme but must be accounted for when implementing power system controls due to the real-time requirements of the data. / Master of Science

This thesis investigates modeling of modular multilevel converters (MMCs) using an averaging method known as extended-frequency dynamic phasors. An MMC can be used as an inverter or a rectifier in high voltage direct current (HVDC) system. This research develops a dynamic phasor model for an MMC operated as an inverter. Extended-frequency dynamic phasors are used to model a system with only interested harmonics present. The developed model is capable of capturing both the low and high-frequency dynamic behavior of the converter depending on the requirements of the study to be performed. The selected MMC model has 5 submodules per arm (6-level converter), nearest level control, capacitor voltage balancing, direct control and phase-locked loop (PLL) synchronization. With the above features, the developed dynamic phasor model is validated with electromagnetic transient model is developed using PSCAD simulation software. The results are compared at transient and steady state with disturbances. The main computational advantage of this modeling is achieving less simulation time with inclusion of harmonics of interest. / October 2016

Synchronized phasor measurements, or synchrophasors, allow the measurement of voltage phase angle and frequency, and through the comparison of two or more phasor the stability of the grid can be studied. The acquisition of synchrophasors in possible using Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and Global Positioning System Technology (GPS). The purpose of this research is to study synchrophasor events in the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) grid. Several studies have been made in the Texas grid, and that allows a comparison of events in both grids. During this study, five different types of synchrophasor events were observed. The first type of events, which consist of a change in phase angle difference value followed by damped oscillations has also been observed in the Texas grid; however, the other 4 types of events are not common occurrences in the Texas grid. The characteristics of each of the five types of synchrophasor events have been analyzed in this thesis. / text

Previously, conventional state estimation techniques have been used for state estimation in power systems. These conventional methods are based on steady state models. As a result of this, power system dynamics during disturbances or transient conditions are not adequately captured. This makes it challenging for operators in control centers to perform visual tracking of the system, proper fault diagnosis and even take adequate preemtive control measures to ensure system stability during voltage dips. Another challenge is that power systems are nonlinear in nature. There are multiple power components in operation at any given time making the system highly dynamic in nature. Consequently, the need to study and implement better dynamic estimation tools that capture system dynamics during disturbances and transient conditions is necessary. For this thesis work, we present the Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) which integrates Unscented Transformation (UT) to Kalman Filtering. Our algorithm takes as input the output of a synchronous machine modeled in MATLAB/Simulink as well as data from a PMU device assumed to be installed at the terminal bus of the synchronous machine, and estimate the dynamic states of the system using a Kalman Filter. We have presented a detailed and analytical study of our proposed algorithm in estimating two dynamic states of the synchronous machine, rotor angle and rotor speed. Our study and result shows that our proposed methodology has better efficiency when compared to the results of the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) algorithm in estimating dynamic states of a power system.  Our results are presented and analyzed on the basis of how accurately the algorithm estimates the system states following various simulated transient and small-signal disturbances.

The penetration of renewable energy sources has increased significantly in recent years due to the ongoing depletion of conventional resources and the transition to a low carbon energy system. Renewable energy sources such as wind energy are highly intermittent and unpredictable in nature, which makes the operation of the power grid more dynamic and therefore more complex. In order to operate the power system reliably under such conditions, Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) through the use of satellite technology can offer a state-of-the-art Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS) for improving power system monitoring, control and protection. They can improve the operation by providing highly precise and synchronised measurements near to real-time with higher frequency and accuracy. In order to achieve such objectives, a high-speed and reliable communications infrastructure is required to transfer time-critical PMU data from remote locations to the control centre. The signals measured by PMUs are transmitted across Local and Wide Area Networks, where they may encounter excessive delays. Signal delays can have a disruptive effect and make applications at best inefficient and at worse ineffective. The main research contribution of this thesis is the performance evaluation of communication infrastructures for WAMS. The evaluation begins from inside substations and continues over wide areas from substations to control centre. Through laboratory-based investigations and simulations, the performance of communications infrastructure in a typical power system substation has been analysed. In addition, the performance evaluation of WAMS communications infrastructure has been presented. In the modelling and analysis, an existing WAMS as installed on the GB transmission system has been considered. The actual PMU packets as received at the Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) were captured for latency analysis. A novel algorithmic procedure has been developed and implemented to automate the large-scale latency calculations. Furthermore, the internal delays of PMUs have been investigated, determined and analysed. Subsequently, the WAMS has been simulated and detailed comparisons have been performed between the simulated model results and WAMS performance data captured from the actual WAMS. The validated WAMS model has been used for analysing possible future developments as well as to test newly proposed mechanisms, protocols, etc. in order to improve the communications infrastructure performance.

Contemporary power networks are gradually expanding incorporating new sources of electrical energy and power electronic based devices. The major stability issue in large interconnected power systems is the lightly damped interarea oscillations. In the light of growth of their incidents there are increased concerns about the effectiveness of current control devices and control systems in maintaining power system stability. This thesis presents a Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) based control scheme to enhance power system stability. The control scheme has a hierarchical (two-level) structure comprising a Supplementary Wide-Area Controller (SWAC) built on top of existing Power System Stabilisers (PSSs). The SWAC's focus is on stabilising the critical interarea oscillations in the system while leaving local modes to be controlled entirely by local PSSs. Both control systems in the two levels work together to maintain system stability. The scheme relies on synchronised measurements supplied by Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) through the WAMS and the only cost requirement is for the communication infrastructure which is already available, or it will be in the near future. A novel linear quadratic Gaussian (LQG) control design approach which targets the interarea modes directly is introduced in this thesis. Its features are demonstrated through a comparison with the conventional method commonly used in power system damping applications. The modal LQG approach offers simplicity and flexibility when targeting multiple interarea modes without affecting local modes and local controllers, thus making it highly suitable to hierarchical WAMS based control schemes. Applicability of the approach to large power systems is demonstrated using different scenarios of model order reduction. The design approach incorporates time delays experienced in the transmission of the SWAC's input/output signals. Issues regarding values of time delays and required level of detail in modelling time delays are thoroughly discussed. Three methods for selection of input/output signals for WAMS based damping controllers are presented and reviewed. The first method uses modal observability/controllability factors. The second method is based on the Sequential Orthogonalisation (SO) algorithm, a tool for the optimal placement of measurement devices. Its application is extended and generalised in this thesis to handle the problem of input/output signal selection. The third method combines clustering techniques and modal factor analysis. The clustering method uses advanced Principal Component Analysis (PCA) where its draw backs and limitations, in the context of power system dynamics' applications, are overcome. The methods for signal selection are compared using both small signal and transient stability analysis to determine the best optimal set of signals. Enhancement of power system stability is demonstrated by applying the proposed WAMS based control scheme on the New England test system. The multi-input multi-output (MIMO) WAMS based damping controller uses a reduced set of input/output signals and is designed using the modal LQG approach. Effectiveness of the control scheme is comprehensively assessed using both small signal and transient stability analysis for different case studies including small and large disturbances, changes in network topology and operating condition, variations in time delays, and failure of communication links.