Acne vulgaris is the single, most common disease that presents a significant challenge to dermatologists, due to its complexity, prevalence and range of clinical expressions. This condition can be found in 85% of teenage boys and 80% of girls (Gollnick, 2003:1580). Acne can cause serious psychological consequences (low self–esteem, social inhibition, depression, etc.), if left untreated, and should therefore be recognised as a serious disorder (Webster, 2001:15). The pathogenesis of acne is varied, with factors that include plugging of the follicle, accumulation of sebum, growth of Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), and inflammatory tissue responses (Wyatt et al., 2001:1809). Acne treatment focuses on the reduction of inflammatory and non–inflammatory acne lesions, and thus halts the scarring process (Railan & Alster, 2008:285). Non–inflammatory acne lesions can be expressed as open and closed comedones, whereas inflammatory lesions comprise of papules, pustules, nodules and cysts (Gollnick, 2003:1581). Acne treatment may be topical, or oral. Topical treatment is the most suitable first–line therapy for non–inflammatory comedones, or mildly inflammatory disease states, with the advantage of avoiding the possible systemic effects of oral medications (Federman & Kirsner, 2000:80). Topical retinoids were very successfully used for the treatment of acne in the 1980s. Their effectiveness in long–term therapies was limited though, due to local skin irritations that occurred in some individuals (Julie & Harper, 2004:S36). Vitamin A acetate presented a new approach in the treatment of acne, showing less side effects (Cheng & Depetris, 1998:7). In this study, vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate were formulated into semisolid, combination formulations for the possible treatment of acne. Whilst vitamin A controls the development of microcomedones, reduces existing comedones, diminishes sebum production and moderately reduces inflammation (Verschoore et al., 1993:107), zinc normalises hormone imbalances (Nutritional–supplements–health–guide.com, 2005:2) and normalises the secretion of sebum (Hostýnek & Maibach, 2002:35). Although the skin presents many advantages to the delivery of drugs, it unfortunately has some limitations. The biggest challenge in the transdermal delivery of drugs is to overcome the natural skin barrier. Its physicochemical properties are a good indication(s) of the transdermal behaviour of a drug. The ideal drug to be used in transdermal delivery would have sufficient lipophilic properties to partition into the stratum corneum, but it would also have sufficient hydrophilic properties to partition into the underlying layers of the skin (Kalia & Guy, 2001:159). Pheroid technology was also implemented during this study, in order to establish whether it would enhance penetration of the active ingredients across the skin. The Pheroid consists of vesicular structures that contain no phospholipids, nor cholesterol, but consists of the same essential fatty acids that are present in humans (Grobler et al., 2008:283). The aim of this study hence was to investigate the transdermal delivery of vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate, jointly formulated into four topical formulations for acne treatment. Vitamin A acetate (0.5%) and zinc acetate (1.2%) were formulated into a cream, Pheroid cream, emulgel and Pheroid emulgel. An existing commercial product, containing vitamin A acetate, was used to compare the results of the formulated products with. The transdermal, epidermal and dermal diffusion of the formulations were determined during a 6 h diffusion study, using Franz diffusion cells and tape stripping techniques. Experimental determination of the diffusion studies proved that vitamin A acetate did not penetrate through the skin. These results applied to both the formulations being developed during this study, as well as to the commercial product. Tape stripping studies were done to determine the concentration of drug present in the epidermis and dermis. The highest epidermal concentration of vitamin A acetate was obtained with the Pheroid emulgel (0.0045 ug/ml), whilst the emulgel formulation provided the highest vitamin A acetate concentration in the dermis (0.0029 ug/ml). Contrary, for the commercial product, the total concentration of vitamin A acetate in the epidermis was noticeably lower than for all the new formulations studied. Vitamin A acetate concentrations of the commercial product in the dermis were within the same concentration range as the newly developed formulations, with the exception of the emulgel that delivered approximately 31% more vitamin A acetate to the dermis, than the commercial product. Zinc acetate was able to diffuse through full thickness skin, although no flux values were obtained. To eliminate the possibility of endogenous zinc diffusion, placebo formulations (without zinc) were prepared for use as control samples during the skin diffusion investigation. The emulgel and Pheroid emulgel formulations were unable to deliver significant zinc acetate concentrations transdermally, although transdermal diffusion was attained from both the cream and Pheroid cream. Tape stripping experiments with placebo formulations relative to the formulated products revealed that zinc acetate concentrations in the epidermis and dermis were significantly higher when the placebo formulations were applied. However, the average zinc acetate concentration in the dermis, after application of the cream formulation, was significantly higher, compared to when the placebo cream was applied. It could therefore be concluded that no zinc acetate had diffused into the epidermis and dermis from the new formulations, except from the cream formulation. The zinc acetate concentration being measured in the epidermis thus rather represented the endogenous zinc acetate. The cream formulation, however, was probably able to deliver detectable zinc acetate concentrations to the epidermis. Stability of the formulated products was tested under a variety of environmental conditions to determine whether the functional qualities would remain within acceptable limits over a certain period of time. The formulated products were tested for a period of three months under storage conditions of 25°C/60% RH (relative humidity), 30°C/60% RH and 40°C/75% RH. Stability studies included stability indicating assay testing, the determination of rheology, pH, droplet size, zeta–potential, mass loss, morphology of the particles and physical assessment. The formulations were unstable over the three months stability test period. A change in viscosity, colour and concentration of the active ingredients were observed. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Artemisinins are known for their low aqueous solubility and resultant poor and erratic absorption upon oral administration. The poor solubility and erratic absorption usually translate, to low bibavailability. Enzymatic degradation and physiological barriers are also amongst the challenges which must be overcome to ensure effective delivery. Artemisininbased monotherapy and combination therapies are essential for the management and treatment of uncomplicated as well as cerebral malaria. Artemisone and artemiside are novel artemisinin derivatives, their antimalarial activity/efficacy was evaluated in vitro and in vivo in the presence and absence of Pheroid™ technology. Pheroid™ technology is a patented drug delivery system which has the ability to capture, transport and deliver pharmacologically active compounds. Pharmacokinetic models were also constructed for artemis one and artemiside, both in the presence and absence of Pheroid™ technology. Results obtained with the jn vitro antimalarial activity evaluation indicated that artemiside was slightly more potent than artemisone and much more potent than artesunate. Artemiside had IC50 values of 0.54 ± 0.03 nM (reference) and 0.10 ± 0.05 nM (Pheroid™) (p = 0.009) while artemisone had values of 0.94 ± 0.04 nM (reference) and 0.21 ± 0.04 nM (Pheroid™) (p = 0.0001). Artesunate had IC50 values of 29.65 ± 0.05 nM (reference) and 10.20 ± 0.04 nM (Pheroid™) (p < 0.0001). Results obtained with the in vivo antimalarial activity evaluation indicated that artemisone led to more favourable treatment outcomes than artemiside. The Peters' 4-day suppressive test was used as a basis model. With artemisone treatment recrudescence occured at 16 days post infection at a dose of 20.0 mg/kg bodyweight and at 12 days post infection at 2.5 mg/kg bodyweight. With artemiside recrudescence occurred at 8 days post infection with both the 10.0 mg/kg and 2.5 mg/kg bodyweight treatment regimens. When comparing the antimalarial effect of the drugs with and without Pheroid™ technology there was no significant difference in terms of parasite reduction or in the achieved treatment outcomes of either compounds. The pharmacokinetic parameters were evaluated in a mouse model where C57 BL6 mice were used. The compounds were administered at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg bodyweight via an oral gavage tube at a volume of 200 µl. Blood samples were collected by means of tail bleeding. Sensitive and selective LC/MS/MS methods were developed to analyze the drug concentrations in the plasma samples. The relative bioavailability of artemisone was RA = 1.0 (reference) and RA = 4.57 (Pheroid™) (p < 0.001). The absolute bioavailability was calculated as F = 0.10 (reference) and F = 0.48(Pheroid™) (p < 0.001). The boiavailability of artemiside was not dramatically enhanced by the Pheroid™ delivery system. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The Plasmodium falciparum parasite, carried by Anopheles mosquitoes, is currently a global problem due to the rising incidence of resistance of the parasite to available antimalaria drugs. Resistance and difficult treatment groups, including pregnant woman and young children, are pressing for the development of new, safe and effective prophylactic and treatment antimalarials. Because of the extensive process of developing new drugs, researchers and health care professionals have turned to combination therapy where a fast acting antimalarial is combined with slower acting drugs, such as antibiotics. The macrolide antibiotics, erytbromycin and azithromycin, have been studied to a limited extent for their potential antimalarial effect. Certain advantages, such as their safety profile (especially that of azithromycin) in pregnancy and administration to young children, motivates continual research into the advancement of the effect these drugs exude on malaria. Drug delivery systems contribute to the efficacy of medicines, conquering several difficulties of treatment with oral medication. Pheroid™ technology is a patented drug delivery system, mainly consisting of plant and essential fatty acids, and has been demonstrated to entrap, carry and deliver pharmacologically active compounds and other useful molecules. This study compared the in vitro effects of the macrolide antibiotics on the growth of a chloroquine-resistant strain (RSA 11) of Plasmodium falciparum to the effects of the macrolides entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles on the same strain over and extended observation period of 144 hours. ELISA assays were conducted by analysing the HRP II (histidine-rich protein) levels on a pre-coated microtitre plate. The effects of the type of formulation, concentration and time were compared. The in vitro difference between erythromycin alone and entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles were found to be statistically significant (p = 0.000000) while the effects of both formulations did not seem to be concentration dependant (p = 0.628424). Prolonged exposure was also statistically meaningful (p = 0.008268), though it seems that exposure need not exceed 96 hours. The type of formulation, in the case of azithromycin (azithromycin alone vs. azitbromycin entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles), proved statistically significant (P = 0.002572), while neither formulation seemed concentration dependant (P = 0.427731). Prolonged exposure was found to be statistically insignificant for azithromycin (P = 0.221941). / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Stability plays an important role in the development of a new drug product. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is considered a stability indicating method of analysis. It is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for the quantification of small organic molecules during stability testing. Previous stability studies conducted on Pheroid™-based drug products, experienced problems with the generation of reliable data by means of HPLC analysis. With these studies it was concluded that the inconclusive results could either be attributed to the stability of the delivery system itself and the compatibility of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API's) with the delivery system, or to the usage of unsuitable HPLC methods. The aims of this study were to: i. determine if the Pheroid™ delivery system changes significantly over time at accelerated storage conditions and how these changes influence the HPLC analysis, ii. determine the effect of the anti-oxidant tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) on the stability and HPLC analysis of the Pheroid™ delivery system, and iii. to suggest a suitable approach for the analysis of Pheroid™-based drug products. Pheroid™ microsponges, containing no API's, were prepared and stored for a period of three months at 5°C, 25°C+60%RH, 30°C+65%RH and 40°C+75%RH. Two of the four Pheroid™ formulations contained an extra anti-oxidant, namely TBHQ. Monthly HPLC analyses were done using existing methods for mefloquine and artesunate. In addition to HPLC analysis, particle size analysis and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) were undertaken to support the HPLC results and provide information concerning the overall stability of the Pheroid™ delivery system. After the completion of the above analyses, experiments were carried out to determine whether adjustments to some of the key chromatographic parameters could improve the separation of Pheroid™-based samples. The parameters that were subjected to change included the organic solvent, isocratic versus gradient separation, pH and detection wavelength. Two pro-Pheroid vesicles formulations were prepared and stored for a three month period at 40°C+75%RH only. No API was added to the one formulation while the other contained 2 mg/ml of mefloquine hydrochloride. Results obtained indicated that the Pheroid™ formulations changed after exposure to elevated temperature and humidity. The number of detectable peaks increased, longer run times became necessary and solubility in the sample solvent (methanol) decreased. Solubility of the Pheroid™ formulations in methanol was preserved to some extent by the presence of TBHQ. Physical signs of instability like discolouration and creaming were noted for TBHQ-containing formulations. TBHQ also seemed to have influenced the particle sizes, particle size distributions and structure of the Pheroid™ microsponges. With adjustments made to the HPLC method it was found that: i. the sample solvent is incompatible with the HPLC system, ii. very hydrophobic compounds are present in the Pheroid™-based samples, iii. acetontrile and methanol are unsuitable for both gradient and isocratic separation of Pheroid™-based samples, iv. more Pheroid™ components absorb at shorter wavelengths, and v. small changes in the pH values usually implemented do not influence the retention and selectivity of the Pheroid™ components. The Pheroid™ delivery system proved to be too complex and reversed hydrophobic for phase HPLC analysis. Preparation of the sample by only diluting the Pheroid™ formulations with pure methanol was not optimal. These samples introduced compounds to the column of which some caused interferences with the analyte peak while others were difficult to elute from the column. To continue using HPLC for the analysis of Pheroid™-based drug products, it is therefore recommended that attention should be given to the development of a more appropriate sample preparation procedure, like solid phase extraction or liquid-liquid extraction, one that will eliminate the effects of the Pheroid™ components. Physical instabilities noticed with the addition of TBHQ, suggest that there should also be attended to the compatibility and stability of each of the components in the Pheroid™ delivery system during formulation development. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Aging can be described as an extremely complex occurrence from which no organism can be excluded. Intrinsic and extrinsic aging make out the two components of skin aging and they differ on the macromolecular level while sharing specific molecular characteristics which include elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) while collagen synthesis decreases. The skin functions as a protective barrier against the harsh environment and is essential for regulating body temperature. The stratum corneum (SC) is responsible for the main resistance to the penetration of most compounds; nevertheless the skin represents as an appropriate target for delivery. The target site for anti-aging treatment includes the epidermal and dermal layers of the skin. Calendula oil and L-carnitine L-tartrate was utilised as the cosmeceutical actives as they can be classified as a mixed category of compounds/products that lie between cosmetics and drugs. Both show excellent properties which can prove valuable during anti-aging treatment, whether it is due to the scavenging of ROS (calendula oil), moisturising effects (calendula oil and L-carnitine L-tartrate) or the improvement of the skin turnover rate (L-carnitine L-tartrate). The Pheroid™ delivery system can enhance the absorption of a selection of active ingredients. The aim of this study was to determine whether the Pheroid™ delivery system will enhance the flux and/or delivery of the named actives to the target site by performing Franz cell diffusion studies over an 8 h period, followed by tape stripping experiments. The Pheroid™ results of the actives were compared to the results obtained when 1 00 % calendula oil was applied and the L-carnitine L-tartrate was dissolved in phosphate buffer solution (PBS), respectively. In the case of calendula oil only a qualitative gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method could be employed. No calendula oil was observed to permeate through the skin, but linoleic acid (marker compound) was present in the epidermis and dermis layers. Components in the Pheroid™ delivery system hampered the results as the marker compound identified is a fundamental component of the Pheroid™, making it difficult to determine whether or not the Pheroid™ delivery system enhanced calendula oil's penetration. The aqueous solubility and log D partition coefficient of L-carnitine L-tartrate was determined. Inspection of the log D value of -1.35 indicated that the compound is unfavourable to penetrate the skin, whereas the aqueous solubility of 16.63 mg/ml in PBS at a temperature of 32º C indicated favourable penetration. During the Franz cell diffusion and tape stripping studies it was determined by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) that carnitine may be inherent to human skin. Pheroid™ enhanced the flux (average of 0.0361 µg/cm2.h, median of 0.0393 µg/cm2.h) of the L-carnitine L-tartrate when compared to PBS (average of 0.0180 µg/cm2.h, median of 0.0142 µg/cm2.h ) for the time interval of 2 -8 h. The PBS was more effective in delivering the active to the target site (0.270 µg/ml in the epidermis and 2.403 µg/ml in the dermis) than Pheroid™ (0.111 µg/ml and 1.641 µg/ml in the epidermis and dermis respectively). Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) confirmed the entrapment of L-carnitine L-tartrate in the Pheroid™ vesicle, while in the case of calendula oil it was impossible to differentiate between the oil and the Pheroid™ components. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Acne vulgaris is the single, most common disease that presents a significant challenge to dermatologists, due to its complexity, prevalence and range of clinical expressions. This condition can be found in 85% of teenage boys and 80% of girls (Gollnick, 2003:1580). Acne can cause serious psychological consequences (low self–esteem, social inhibition, depression, etc.), if left untreated, and should therefore be recognised as a serious disorder (Webster, 2001:15). The pathogenesis of acne is varied, with factors that include plugging of the follicle, accumulation of sebum, growth of Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), and inflammatory tissue responses (Wyatt et al., 2001:1809). Acne treatment focuses on the reduction of inflammatory and non–inflammatory acne lesions, and thus halts the scarring process (Railan & Alster, 2008:285). Non–inflammatory acne lesions can be expressed as open and closed comedones, whereas inflammatory lesions comprise of papules, pustules, nodules and cysts (Gollnick, 2003:1581). Acne treatment may be topical, or oral. Topical treatment is the most suitable first–line therapy for non–inflammatory comedones, or mildly inflammatory disease states, with the advantage of avoiding the possible systemic effects of oral medications (Federman & Kirsner, 2000:80). Topical retinoids were very successfully used for the treatment of acne in the 1980s. Their effectiveness in long–term therapies was limited though, due to local skin irritations that occurred in some individuals (Julie & Harper, 2004:S36). Vitamin A acetate presented a new approach in the treatment of acne, showing less side effects (Cheng & Depetris, 1998:7). In this study, vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate were formulated into semisolid, combination formulations for the possible treatment of acne. Whilst vitamin A controls the development of microcomedones, reduces existing comedones, diminishes sebum production and moderately reduces inflammation (Verschoore et al., 1993:107), zinc normalises hormone imbalances (Nutritional–supplements–health–guide.com, 2005:2) and normalises the secretion of sebum (Hostýnek & Maibach, 2002:35). Although the skin presents many advantages to the delivery of drugs, it unfortunately has some limitations. The biggest challenge in the transdermal delivery of drugs is to overcome the natural skin barrier. Its physicochemical properties are a good indication(s) of the transdermal behaviour of a drug. The ideal drug to be used in transdermal delivery would have sufficient lipophilic properties to partition into the stratum corneum, but it would also have sufficient hydrophilic properties to partition into the underlying layers of the skin (Kalia & Guy, 2001:159). Pheroid technology was also implemented during this study, in order to establish whether it would enhance penetration of the active ingredients across the skin. The Pheroid consists of vesicular structures that contain no phospholipids, nor cholesterol, but consists of the same essential fatty acids that are present in humans (Grobler et al., 2008:283). The aim of this study hence was to investigate the transdermal delivery of vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate, jointly formulated into four topical formulations for acne treatment. Vitamin A acetate (0.5%) and zinc acetate (1.2%) were formulated into a cream, Pheroid cream, emulgel and Pheroid emulgel. An existing commercial product, containing vitamin A acetate, was used to compare the results of the formulated products with. The transdermal, epidermal and dermal diffusion of the formulations were determined during a 6 h diffusion study, using Franz diffusion cells and tape stripping techniques. Experimental determination of the diffusion studies proved that vitamin A acetate did not penetrate through the skin. These results applied to both the formulations being developed during this study, as well as to the commercial product. Tape stripping studies were done to determine the concentration of drug present in the epidermis and dermis. The highest epidermal concentration of vitamin A acetate was obtained with the Pheroid emulgel (0.0045 ug/ml), whilst the emulgel formulation provided the highest vitamin A acetate concentration in the dermis (0.0029 ug/ml). Contrary, for the commercial product, the total concentration of vitamin A acetate in the epidermis was noticeably lower than for all the new formulations studied. Vitamin A acetate concentrations of the commercial product in the dermis were within the same concentration range as the newly developed formulations, with the exception of the emulgel that delivered approximately 31% more vitamin A acetate to the dermis, than the commercial product. Zinc acetate was able to diffuse through full thickness skin, although no flux values were obtained. To eliminate the possibility of endogenous zinc diffusion, placebo formulations (without zinc) were prepared for use as control samples during the skin diffusion investigation. The emulgel and Pheroid emulgel formulations were unable to deliver significant zinc acetate concentrations transdermally, although transdermal diffusion was attained from both the cream and Pheroid cream. Tape stripping experiments with placebo formulations relative to the formulated products revealed that zinc acetate concentrations in the epidermis and dermis were significantly higher when the placebo formulations were applied. However, the average zinc acetate concentration in the dermis, after application of the cream formulation, was significantly higher, compared to when the placebo cream was applied. It could therefore be concluded that no zinc acetate had diffused into the epidermis and dermis from the new formulations, except from the cream formulation. The zinc acetate concentration being measured in the epidermis thus rather represented the endogenous zinc acetate. The cream formulation, however, was probably able to deliver detectable zinc acetate concentrations to the epidermis. Stability of the formulated products was tested under a variety of environmental conditions to determine whether the functional qualities would remain within acceptable limits over a certain period of time. The formulated products were tested for a period of three months under storage conditions of 25°C/60% RH (relative humidity), 30°C/60% RH and 40°C/75% RH. Stability studies included stability indicating assay testing, the determination of rheology, pH, droplet size, zeta–potential, mass loss, morphology of the particles and physical assessment. The formulations were unstable over the three months stability test period. A change in viscosity, colour and concentration of the active ingredients were observed. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Artemisinins are known for their low aqueous solubility and resultant poor and erratic absorption upon oral administration. The poor solubility and erratic absorption usually translate, to low bibavailability. Enzymatic degradation and physiological barriers are also amongst the challenges which must be overcome to ensure effective delivery. Artemisininbased monotherapy and combination therapies are essential for the management and treatment of uncomplicated as well as cerebral malaria. Artemisone and artemiside are novel artemisinin derivatives, their antimalarial activity/efficacy was evaluated in vitro and in vivo in the presence and absence of Pheroid™ technology. Pheroid™ technology is a patented drug delivery system which has the ability to capture, transport and deliver pharmacologically active compounds. Pharmacokinetic models were also constructed for artemis one and artemiside, both in the presence and absence of Pheroid™ technology. Results obtained with the jn vitro antimalarial activity evaluation indicated that artemiside was slightly more potent than artemisone and much more potent than artesunate. Artemiside had IC50 values of 0.54 ± 0.03 nM (reference) and 0.10 ± 0.05 nM (Pheroid™) (p = 0.009) while artemisone had values of 0.94 ± 0.04 nM (reference) and 0.21 ± 0.04 nM (Pheroid™) (p = 0.0001). Artesunate had IC50 values of 29.65 ± 0.05 nM (reference) and 10.20 ± 0.04 nM (Pheroid™) (p < 0.0001). Results obtained with the in vivo antimalarial activity evaluation indicated that artemisone led to more favourable treatment outcomes than artemiside. The Peters' 4-day suppressive test was used as a basis model. With artemisone treatment recrudescence occured at 16 days post infection at a dose of 20.0 mg/kg bodyweight and at 12 days post infection at 2.5 mg/kg bodyweight. With artemiside recrudescence occurred at 8 days post infection with both the 10.0 mg/kg and 2.5 mg/kg bodyweight treatment regimens. When comparing the antimalarial effect of the drugs with and without Pheroid™ technology there was no significant difference in terms of parasite reduction or in the achieved treatment outcomes of either compounds. The pharmacokinetic parameters were evaluated in a mouse model where C57 BL6 mice were used. The compounds were administered at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg bodyweight via an oral gavage tube at a volume of 200 µl. Blood samples were collected by means of tail bleeding. Sensitive and selective LC/MS/MS methods were developed to analyze the drug concentrations in the plasma samples. The relative bioavailability of artemisone was RA = 1.0 (reference) and RA = 4.57 (Pheroid™) (p < 0.001). The absolute bioavailability was calculated as F = 0.10 (reference) and F = 0.48(Pheroid™) (p < 0.001). The boiavailability of artemiside was not dramatically enhanced by the Pheroid™ delivery system. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The Plasmodium falciparum parasite, carried by Anopheles mosquitoes, is currently a global problem due to the rising incidence of resistance of the parasite to available antimalaria drugs. Resistance and difficult treatment groups, including pregnant woman and young children, are pressing for the development of new, safe and effective prophylactic and treatment antimalarials. Because of the extensive process of developing new drugs, researchers and health care professionals have turned to combination therapy where a fast acting antimalarial is combined with slower acting drugs, such as antibiotics. The macrolide antibiotics, erytbromycin and azithromycin, have been studied to a limited extent for their potential antimalarial effect. Certain advantages, such as their safety profile (especially that of azithromycin) in pregnancy and administration to young children, motivates continual research into the advancement of the effect these drugs exude on malaria. Drug delivery systems contribute to the efficacy of medicines, conquering several difficulties of treatment with oral medication. Pheroid™ technology is a patented drug delivery system, mainly consisting of plant and essential fatty acids, and has been demonstrated to entrap, carry and deliver pharmacologically active compounds and other useful molecules. This study compared the in vitro effects of the macrolide antibiotics on the growth of a chloroquine-resistant strain (RSA 11) of Plasmodium falciparum to the effects of the macrolides entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles on the same strain over and extended observation period of 144 hours. ELISA assays were conducted by analysing the HRP II (histidine-rich protein) levels on a pre-coated microtitre plate. The effects of the type of formulation, concentration and time were compared. The in vitro difference between erythromycin alone and entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles were found to be statistically significant (p = 0.000000) while the effects of both formulations did not seem to be concentration dependant (p = 0.628424). Prolonged exposure was also statistically meaningful (p = 0.008268), though it seems that exposure need not exceed 96 hours. The type of formulation, in the case of azithromycin (azithromycin alone vs. azitbromycin entrapped in Pheroid™ vesicles), proved statistically significant (P = 0.002572), while neither formulation seemed concentration dependant (P = 0.427731). Prolonged exposure was found to be statistically insignificant for azithromycin (P = 0.221941). / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Stability plays an important role in the development of a new drug product. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is considered a stability indicating method of analysis. It is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for the quantification of small organic molecules during stability testing. Previous stability studies conducted on Pheroid™-based drug products, experienced problems with the generation of reliable data by means of HPLC analysis. With these studies it was concluded that the inconclusive results could either be attributed to the stability of the delivery system itself and the compatibility of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API's) with the delivery system, or to the usage of unsuitable HPLC methods. The aims of this study were to: i. determine if the Pheroid™ delivery system changes significantly over time at accelerated storage conditions and how these changes influence the HPLC analysis, ii. determine the effect of the anti-oxidant tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) on the stability and HPLC analysis of the Pheroid™ delivery system, and iii. to suggest a suitable approach for the analysis of Pheroid™-based drug products. Pheroid™ microsponges, containing no API's, were prepared and stored for a period of three months at 5°C, 25°C+60%RH, 30°C+65%RH and 40°C+75%RH. Two of the four Pheroid™ formulations contained an extra anti-oxidant, namely TBHQ. Monthly HPLC analyses were done using existing methods for mefloquine and artesunate. In addition to HPLC analysis, particle size analysis and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) were undertaken to support the HPLC results and provide information concerning the overall stability of the Pheroid™ delivery system. After the completion of the above analyses, experiments were carried out to determine whether adjustments to some of the key chromatographic parameters could improve the separation of Pheroid™-based samples. The parameters that were subjected to change included the organic solvent, isocratic versus gradient separation, pH and detection wavelength. Two pro-Pheroid vesicles formulations were prepared and stored for a three month period at 40°C+75%RH only. No API was added to the one formulation while the other contained 2 mg/ml of mefloquine hydrochloride. Results obtained indicated that the Pheroid™ formulations changed after exposure to elevated temperature and humidity. The number of detectable peaks increased, longer run times became necessary and solubility in the sample solvent (methanol) decreased. Solubility of the Pheroid™ formulations in methanol was preserved to some extent by the presence of TBHQ. Physical signs of instability like discolouration and creaming were noted for TBHQ-containing formulations. TBHQ also seemed to have influenced the particle sizes, particle size distributions and structure of the Pheroid™ microsponges. With adjustments made to the HPLC method it was found that: i. the sample solvent is incompatible with the HPLC system, ii. very hydrophobic compounds are present in the Pheroid™-based samples, iii. acetontrile and methanol are unsuitable for both gradient and isocratic separation of Pheroid™-based samples, iv. more Pheroid™ components absorb at shorter wavelengths, and v. small changes in the pH values usually implemented do not influence the retention and selectivity of the Pheroid™ components. The Pheroid™ delivery system proved to be too complex and reversed hydrophobic for phase HPLC analysis. Preparation of the sample by only diluting the Pheroid™ formulations with pure methanol was not optimal. These samples introduced compounds to the column of which some caused interferences with the analyte peak while others were difficult to elute from the column. To continue using HPLC for the analysis of Pheroid™-based drug products, it is therefore recommended that attention should be given to the development of a more appropriate sample preparation procedure, like solid phase extraction or liquid-liquid extraction, one that will eliminate the effects of the Pheroid™ components. Physical instabilities noticed with the addition of TBHQ, suggest that there should also be attended to the compatibility and stability of each of the components in the Pheroid™ delivery system during formulation development. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.