Phospholipase C enzymes are a class of enzymes that catalyse the cleavage of the membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P₂) into the second messengers, inositol trisphosphate (Ins(4,5)P₃) and diacylglycerol (DAG). Six classes of PLC enzymes have been identified based on their structure and mechanism of activation. PLCηs are the most recently identified family and consist of two isozymes, PLCη1 and PLCη2. The aim of this thesis is to further understand the mechanisms of PLCη activation, the role of PLCη2 in relation to neuritogenesis and their roles in certain disease states. Both isoforms were found to be activated by physiological concentrations of intracellular Ca²⁺. Activation of PLCη2 by Gß₁γ₂ was confirmed using a bacterial 2A co-expression system to allow expression of PLCη2, Gß₁ and Gγ₂ with a single plasmid. Localisation studies show a nuclear distribution for PLCη2, but a cytoplasmic distribution for PLCη1 in a neuroblastoma cells line (Neuro2A). PLCη2 has been implicated in brain development and neurite formation. Building on this, a neuronal differentiation model using RA-treated Neuro2A cells stably expressing mutant forms of PLCη2 was utilised, revealing that PLCη2 activity is essential for neuritogenesis but that this process is independent of the enzymes high sensitivity towards Ca²⁺. Furthermore, the direct interaction of PLCη2 and LIMK-1, a previously identified PLCη2 associated protein, is confirmed in the aforementioned neuronal model. Due to the high sensitivity of PLCη enzymes to Ca²⁺ and because of their presence within neurons, they may be involved in Ca²⁺ dysregulation that occurs in certain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The role of PLCη2 was assessed in amyloid-ß (Aß) treated differentiated Neuro2A cells, a cellular model for AD pathogenesis. Also a developmental role for PLCη1 was investigated due to a recently identified PLCη1 polymorphism in patients with holoprosencephaly, an embryonic midline defect.

Os conhecimentos sobre os mecanismos regulatórios responsáveis pelo crescimento dos fungos filamentosos apresentam lacunas e sua compreensão é necessária para o desenvolvimento de uma terapêutica antifúngica mais adequada, assim como para incrementar a síntese de produtos de interesse comercial. Assim sendo, estudar o envolvimento do Ca2+ na resposta de um fungo modelo como A. nidulans sob fontes de carbono diferentes constitui um meio de gerar conhecimentos sobre as características de crescimento dos fungos filamentosos, de sua resposta a adaptação ambiental e dos mecanismos que controlam essa resposta. Analisou-se na linhagem A26 e na AP27, esta última com ruptura do gene da plcA, o gradiente de Ca2+ citosólico, a morfologia das hifas, a germinação e o ciclo de divisão nuclear quando as linhagens tinham calcineurina ou calmodulina inibidas e quando os canais de Ca2+ estavam bloqueados ou abertos. Os níveis de Ca2+ citosólico na linhagem A26, crescendo em presença de glicose, foram maiores que os detectados em meio suplementado com pectina. O ciclo de germinação e divisão celular no AP27, independentemente da fonte de carbono, mostrou-se mais lento se comparado com a linhagem A26, provavelmente devido ao fato de seus estoques intracelulares de Ca2+, tanto em nível vesicular quanto citosólico, serem menores. A linhagem AP27 apresentou ramificações dicotômicas nas pontas das hifas e nas hifas laterais em ambas as fontes de carbono nas quais foi cultivada, o que não se observou na linhagem A26. Quando calcineurina foi inibida por ciclosporina A, as hifas das duas linhagens, em ambas condições de cultivo, alongaram-se menos e apresentaram-se mais ramificadas, no entanto este efeito foi mais pronunciado em presença de glicose, e entre as duas linhagens pode-se dizer que foi mais intenso na linhagem AP27, demonstrando a importância dos níveis de cálcio na atividade desta enzima e conseqüentemente no desenvolvimento normal das hifas. A abertura dos canais de Ca2+, por ionóforo, produziu hiperramificação em ambas as linhagens, mas principalmente quando cresciam em pectina e ao contrário do efeito observado em presença de verapamil, que bloqueia os canais de Ca2+, não promoveram hifas laterais e nem pontas dicotômicas. No entanto o outro bloqueador dos canais de Ca2+ testado, ácido caurenóico, apresentou efeito morfológico diferente, pois as hifas tornaram-se curvas o que indica perda de polaridade. O inibidor da calmodulina (TFP) retardou a germinação, principalmente no mutante AP27, quando crescendo em presença de glicose. Lembrando que o complexo Ca2+/CaM ativa a calcineurina e que o mutante apresenta menores níveis de cálcio, esse resultado é justificável. A ruptura do gene plcA não impediu o crescimento e desenvolvimento do mutante, provavelmente porque a função desta enzima poder ser provida por outras partes do genoma, mas comprometeu os níveis intracelulares de cálcio e conseqüentemente a sua morfologia. Este estudo mostra a importância da fosfolipase C, para manutenção dos níveis intracelulares de Ca2+, no desenvolvimento normal das hifas de A. nidulans e, pela primeira vez, demonstra que esses níveis são diferentes quando o fungo cresce em presença de uma fonte de carbono, prontamente metabolizável ou não. Esses resultados conferem ao cálcio um papel modulador nessas condições de cultivo. / The knowledge about regulatory mechanisms responsible for filamentous fungi growth presents lacks and its understanding is important to develop adequate antifungal therapy either to contribute the synthesis of interestingly commercial products. By this way, study Ca2+ relationship to a fungal model as A. nidulans about different carbon sources, constitute knowledge about the filamentous fungi growing characteristics, environment adaptation and its control mechanisms. The strains A26 and AP27 was analyzed, this last one with disruption plcA gene, cytosolic Ca2+ gradient hyphal morfology, germination and nuclear division cycle when these strains had calcineurin or calmodulin inhibition and Ca2+ channel were blocked or opened. Cytosolic Ca2+ levels in A26 strain, growing in the presence of glucose was higher than supplemented media with pectin. AP27 strain, independently of carbon source, demonstrated lower germination and cell division than A26 strains, probably due to the fact that intracellular Ca2+ stocks either vesicular as cytosolic levels were lower. AP27 strain presented dichotomous branching at tip-high and lateral hyphae, at both carbon source that was grown, didnt observed at A26 linkage. When calcineurin was inhibited by cyclosporin A, hyphae from both strains, in both growth conditions, had less elongated and showed more branching, however this effect was more pronounced in presence of glucose, and between both strains was more intense at AP27 strain, indicating the importance of Ca2+ levels at this enzymatic activity and therefore the normal development of hyphae. The opening of Ca2+ channel by ionophore, produced hyperbranching in both strains, even when growth in pectin and in contrast of effect observed in the presence of verapamil, that blocks Ca2+ channels, didnt promote lateral or tip high dichotomous branching. However kaurenoic acid, an another Ca2+ channel blocker tested, presented different morphological effect, because hyphae became curved, indicating loss of polarity. Calmodulin inhibitor (TFP) delayed germination mainly at mutant AP27, when growing in the presence of glucose. Remembering that Ca2+/CaM complex activate calcineurin and the mutant exhibit lower Ca2+ levels, justifying this results. The rupture of plcA gene didnt affected growth and development of mutant, probably because the function of this enzyme can be provided by another parts of genoma, damaged the Ca2+ intracellular levels and consequently its morphology. This study shows the importance of fosfolipase C to maintaining the intracellular Ca2+ levels, at the normal hyphae development of A. nidulans and for the first time, demonstrating that this levels are different when fungi are grown in the presence of carbon source, promptly metabolizable or not. This results gives to Ca2+ as modulator at growth conditions.

In addition to contributing genes at fertilization, the sperm cell induces the oocyte to leave its arrested state and resume metabolism in the process of activation. A hallmark of oocyte activation is a release of intracellular calcium (Ca2+i) from the endoplasmic reticulum. The mediators of oocyte activation have been studied in many animal models, while little is known in the bovine model. Both Src Family Kinase (SFK) and Phospholipase C (PLC) enzymes have been reported to be involved in oocyte activation in other animal models. In this dissertation are described experiments that define the role of SFK and PLC enzymes in the pathway leading to Ca2+i and calcium induced calcium release in bovine oocyte activation. Western blotting was used to discover that SFKs Src, Hck, and Lck are present in matured bovine oocytes, and Src, Blk, and Yes are present in acrosome reacted bovine spermatozoa. The PLC δ1 and δ3 are present in both matured bovine oocytes and spermatozoa. PLC δ4, γ2, and η2 are present in matured bovine oocytes. Microinjecting a known general SFK inhibitor, PP2, significantly decreases both Ca2+i and cleavage rates. Microinjecting a 13 amino acid peptide that mimics the phosphorylated carboxyl terminal region of pp60c-src decreases both Ca2+i and cleavage rates. Microinjecting a downstream substrate of pp60c-src sequestered any signal produced by Src and decreased Ca2+i and cleavage rates. Microinjecting primary antibodies raised against PLC isotypes blocked both Ca2+i and cleavage rates, giving insight to the mechanism of calcium induced calcium release in the bovine model. The PLC isotypes δ3, δ4, and γ2 decreased Ca2+i oscillations and cleavage rates, indicating they are involved in both IP3R and RyR activation. PLC δ4 and η2 did not impact Ca2+i but did significantly decrease cleavage rates. The data presented in this dissertation increase the understanding of the pathway leading to bovine oocyte activation and further confirm that the detailed pathway differs among animal models.

The C type natriuretic peptide receptor (NPRC) also known as NPR3 is a widely expressed single transmembrane-spanning protein. NPRC functions as a homodimer at the cell surface for the metabolic clearance of a broad range of natriuretic peptides from circulation. The intracellular domain of NPRC is coupled to inhibitory G proteins and is involved in mediating signal transduction. In order to further elucidate the role of NPRC in signal transduction a proteomic approach was taken to identify putative protein binding partners for NPRC in different cell-types. An interrogation of the molecular association between NPRC and its identified protein binding partner(s) was carried out in different cell types to identify the specific interacting domains. The physiological role of the association between NPRC and its protein binding partner(s) were investigated in situ. Furthermore NPRC is subject to post translation modifications including glycosylation and phosphorylation. Although evidence suggests NPRC is phosphory ated on serine residues the specific amino acid residues that are phosphorylated and the kinases responsible for their phosphorylation has yet to be determined. A recombinant GST-NPRC fusion protein polyclonal NPRC antibody kinase prediction algorithm and several phosphospecific and substrate motif antibodies were utilized to characterize the phosphorylation state of NPRC in vitro.

myo-lnositol (mIns), a natural component of the human diet and essential precursor of several signalling pathways, including that of G protein-coupled receptors, has also been shown to be effective in the treatment of psychiatric disorders such as depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and panic disorder. Most likely since mlns is a simple isomer of glucose, no serious side effects have been reported with its use, even at high oral doses of mlns. Previous studies suggest that the therapeutic action of mlns may include reduced serotonin 5HTzA and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor function. An important signal transduction system that may possibly be involved in the mechanism of action of antidepressants is phosphoinositide (PI) turnover. In this signalling system PI-phospholipase C (PLCpl), that is implicated in the in the mechanism of action of antidepressants and anxiolytics, is activated. The mechanism of action of mlns, however, still remains elusive and needs further investigation. In this study a possible modulatory role of 24-hour pre-treatment of human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) with mlns on mRNA levels and protein expression of phospholipase C-p1 (PLCP1) and glycogen synthase kinase 3P (GSK3p) was investigated. The effects of mlns were also compared to that of other prototype antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor), imipramine (a tricyclic antidepressant), lithium and another drug with potential antidepressant effects, sildenafil (phosphodiesterase 5-type (PDE5) inhibitor). Real-time reverse transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RTPCR) was performed in order to investigate the mRNA levels, while protein expression in membranes and the cytosol fraction of cells were quantified with Western blots. The expression of PLCPl was decreased after pre-treatments with imipramine or myoinositol in combination with fluoxetine. In addition, sildenafil alone or in combination with myo-inositol, also decreased the expression of membrane-bound PLCp1. However, a 24- hour pre-treatment with lithium did not alter PLCPl expression significantly. Determined mRNA levels for the expression of PLCPl were consistent in these findings, except for the inhibition of the mRNA for the expression of PLCPl also after lithium treatment. The reduced PLCpl mRNA levels after lithium pre-treatment may suggest the involvement of posttranscriptional modification (or delayed translational effects) of PLCpl after lithium treatment. The data from the current study suggest that antidepressant action may include downregulation of PLCPl expression and that modulators of the nitric oxidecGMP pathway (e.g. sildenafil as a PDE5 inhibitor) may exhibit similar properties. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

There is no abstract available for this dissertation. / School of Physical Education

myo-lnositol (mIns), a natural component of the human diet and essential precursor of several signalling pathways, including that of G protein-coupled receptors, has also been shown to be effective in the treatment of psychiatric disorders such as depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and panic disorder. Most likely since mlns is a simple isomer of glucose, no serious side effects have been reported with its use, even at high oral doses of mlns. Previous studies suggest that the therapeutic action of mlns may include reduced serotonin 5HTzA and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor function. An important signal transduction system that may possibly be involved in the mechanism of action of antidepressants is phosphoinositide (PI) turnover. In this signalling system PI-phospholipase C (PLCpl), that is implicated in the in the mechanism of action of antidepressants and anxiolytics, is activated. The mechanism of action of mlns, however, still remains elusive and needs further investigation. In this study a possible modulatory role of 24-hour pre-treatment of human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) with mlns on mRNA levels and protein expression of phospholipase C-p1 (PLCP1) and glycogen synthase kinase 3P (GSK3p) was investigated. The effects of mlns were also compared to that of other prototype antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor), imipramine (a tricyclic antidepressant), lithium and another drug with potential antidepressant effects, sildenafil (phosphodiesterase 5-type (PDE5) inhibitor). Real-time reverse transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RTPCR) was performed in order to investigate the mRNA levels, while protein expression in membranes and the cytosol fraction of cells were quantified with Western blots. The expression of PLCPl was decreased after pre-treatments with imipramine or myoinositol in combination with fluoxetine. In addition, sildenafil alone or in combination with myo-inositol, also decreased the expression of membrane-bound PLCp1. However, a 24- hour pre-treatment with lithium did not alter PLCPl expression significantly. Determined mRNA levels for the expression of PLCPl were consistent in these findings, except for the inhibition of the mRNA for the expression of PLCPl also after lithium treatment. The reduced PLCpl mRNA levels after lithium pre-treatment may suggest the involvement of posttranscriptional modification (or delayed translational effects) of PLCpl after lithium treatment. The data from the current study suggest that antidepressant action may include downregulation of PLCPl expression and that modulators of the nitric oxidecGMP pathway (e.g. sildenafil as a PDE5 inhibitor) may exhibit similar properties. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio University, March, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 158-181).

Os conhecimentos sobre os mecanismos regulatórios responsáveis pelo crescimento dos fungos filamentosos apresentam lacunas e sua compreensão é necessária para o desenvolvimento de uma terapêutica antifúngica mais adequada, assim como para incrementar a síntese de produtos de interesse comercial. Assim sendo, estudar o envolvimento do Ca2+ na resposta de um fungo modelo como A. nidulans sob fontes de carbono diferentes constitui um meio de gerar conhecimentos sobre as características de crescimento dos fungos filamentosos, de sua resposta a adaptação ambiental e dos mecanismos que controlam essa resposta. Analisou-se na linhagem A26 e na AP27, esta última com ruptura do gene da plcA, o gradiente de Ca2+ citosólico, a morfologia das hifas, a germinação e o ciclo de divisão nuclear quando as linhagens tinham calcineurina ou calmodulina inibidas e quando os canais de Ca2+ estavam bloqueados ou abertos. Os níveis de Ca2+ citosólico na linhagem A26, crescendo em presença de glicose, foram maiores que os detectados em meio suplementado com pectina. O ciclo de germinação e divisão celular no AP27, independentemente da fonte de carbono, mostrou-se mais lento se comparado com a linhagem A26, provavelmente devido ao fato de seus estoques intracelulares de Ca2+, tanto em nível vesicular quanto citosólico, serem menores. A linhagem AP27 apresentou ramificações dicotômicas nas pontas das hifas e nas hifas laterais em ambas as fontes de carbono nas quais foi cultivada, o que não se observou na linhagem A26. Quando calcineurina foi inibida por ciclosporina A, as hifas das duas linhagens, em ambas condições de cultivo, alongaram-se menos e apresentaram-se mais ramificadas, no entanto este efeito foi mais pronunciado em presença de glicose, e entre as duas linhagens pode-se dizer que foi mais intenso na linhagem AP27, demonstrando a importância dos níveis de cálcio na atividade desta enzima e conseqüentemente no desenvolvimento normal das hifas. A abertura dos canais de Ca2+, por ionóforo, produziu hiperramificação em ambas as linhagens, mas principalmente quando cresciam em pectina e ao contrário do efeito observado em presença de verapamil, que bloqueia os canais de Ca2+, não promoveram hifas laterais e nem pontas dicotômicas. No entanto o outro bloqueador dos canais de Ca2+ testado, ácido caurenóico, apresentou efeito morfológico diferente, pois as hifas tornaram-se curvas o que indica perda de polaridade. O inibidor da calmodulina (TFP) retardou a germinação, principalmente no mutante AP27, quando crescendo em presença de glicose. Lembrando que o complexo Ca2+/CaM ativa a calcineurina e que o mutante apresenta menores níveis de cálcio, esse resultado é justificável. A ruptura do gene plcA não impediu o crescimento e desenvolvimento do mutante, provavelmente porque a função desta enzima poder ser provida por outras partes do genoma, mas comprometeu os níveis intracelulares de cálcio e conseqüentemente a sua morfologia. Este estudo mostra a importância da fosfolipase C, para manutenção dos níveis intracelulares de Ca2+, no desenvolvimento normal das hifas de A. nidulans e, pela primeira vez, demonstra que esses níveis são diferentes quando o fungo cresce em presença de uma fonte de carbono, prontamente metabolizável ou não. Esses resultados conferem ao cálcio um papel modulador nessas condições de cultivo. / The knowledge about regulatory mechanisms responsible for filamentous fungi growth presents lacks and its understanding is important to develop adequate antifungal therapy either to contribute the synthesis of interestingly commercial products. By this way, study Ca2+ relationship to a fungal model as A. nidulans about different carbon sources, constitute knowledge about the filamentous fungi growing characteristics, environment adaptation and its control mechanisms. The strains A26 and AP27 was analyzed, this last one with disruption plcA gene, cytosolic Ca2+ gradient hyphal morfology, germination and nuclear division cycle when these strains had calcineurin or calmodulin inhibition and Ca2+ channel were blocked or opened. Cytosolic Ca2+ levels in A26 strain, growing in the presence of glucose was higher than supplemented media with pectin. AP27 strain, independently of carbon source, demonstrated lower germination and cell division than A26 strains, probably due to the fact that intracellular Ca2+ stocks either vesicular as cytosolic levels were lower. AP27 strain presented dichotomous branching at tip-high and lateral hyphae, at both carbon source that was grown, didnt observed at A26 linkage. When calcineurin was inhibited by cyclosporin A, hyphae from both strains, in both growth conditions, had less elongated and showed more branching, however this effect was more pronounced in presence of glucose, and between both strains was more intense at AP27 strain, indicating the importance of Ca2+ levels at this enzymatic activity and therefore the normal development of hyphae. The opening of Ca2+ channel by ionophore, produced hyperbranching in both strains, even when growth in pectin and in contrast of effect observed in the presence of verapamil, that blocks Ca2+ channels, didnt promote lateral or tip high dichotomous branching. However kaurenoic acid, an another Ca2+ channel blocker tested, presented different morphological effect, because hyphae became curved, indicating loss of polarity. Calmodulin inhibitor (TFP) delayed germination mainly at mutant AP27, when growing in the presence of glucose. Remembering that Ca2+/CaM complex activate calcineurin and the mutant exhibit lower Ca2+ levels, justifying this results. The rupture of plcA gene didnt affected growth and development of mutant, probably because the function of this enzyme can be provided by another parts of genoma, damaged the Ca2+ intracellular levels and consequently its morphology. This study shows the importance of fosfolipase C to maintaining the intracellular Ca2+ levels, at the normal hyphae development of A. nidulans and for the first time, demonstrating that this levels are different when fungi are grown in the presence of carbon source, promptly metabolizable or not. This results gives to Ca2+ as modulator at growth conditions.

Phosphatidylinositol is a a minor membrane component of eukaryotic cells, however, it plays a crucial role in cell signaling pathways as a precursor for a number of signaling molecules and second messengers. Among the most significant ones are phosphoinositides created by phosphorylation of the hydroxyl groups of phosphatidylinositol at positions 3,4, and 5 of the inositol ring. Despite its significance, the spatial and temporal distribution and dynamics of phosphatidylinositol remains unclear owing mainly to the lack of a specific optical probe (biosensor) to visualize phosphatidylinositol in living cells. Biosensor for inositol phospholipids are based on lipid-binding domains of their effector proteins with high enough affinity and specificity for a given phosphoinositide - but nosuch domain is known for PI. However, an enzyme - phosphatidylinositol-dependent phospholipase C - that specifically recognizes phosphatidylinositol is known. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol into diacylglycerol and inositol 1-phosphate and unlike eukaryotic homologs does not act upon the phosphorylated forms of phosphatidylinositol. The main aim of this thesis was to solve the structures of several inactive mutant forms of phospholipase C from Bacillus cereus complexed to myo-inositol which...