Large Area Maskless Photopolymerization (LAMP) is a disruptive additive manufacturing technology developed in the Direct Digital Manufacturing Laboratory at Georgia Tech. Due to polymerization shrinkage during the layer-by-layer curing process, stresses are accumulated that can give rise to cracks and delaminations along the interfaces between adjacent layers. The objective of this doctoral dissertation is to investigate the mechanisms of stress evolution and cracking/delamination during the LAMP manufacturing process through theoretical modeling and experimental characterization methods. The evolving conversion degree in a layer was characterized through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and this leads to a so-called print-through curve. The polymerization shrinkage strain in each exposed layer was calculated on the basis of the theoretical relationship between the volumetric shrinkage and the degree of conversion. Furthermore, the material’s elastic modulus, which also evolves with the degree of conversion, was characterized by three-point bending tests. With the degree of conversion, cure-dependent modulus and shrinkage strain as the three primary inputs, finite element modeling was conducted to dynamically simulate the layer-by-layer manufacturing process and to predict the process-induced stresses. To investigate the fracture process, Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture toughness of the LAMP-built laminates was characterized, using the double cantilever beam (DCB) test and the end notched flexure (ENF) test, respectively. In order to predict the crack initiation and propagation occurring in a LAMP-built part, a mixed-mode cohesive element model was developed. The Mode I and Mode II cohesive parameters, which are used to describe the bilinear constitutive behavior of the cohesive elements, were determined by matching the numerical load-deflection curves to the experimental ones obtained from the DCB tests and the ENF tests, respectively. Using this model, the fracture of a hollow-cylinder part was analyzed and the simulation results were compared with experiments. Finally, several possible strategies for mitigating the shrinkage related defects were investigated. Reducing the overall polymerization shrinkage, optimizing the print-through curve and delaying the gel point of resin composite were demonstrated to be effective in reducing stresses and cracks.

Cancer metastasis directly accounts for an estimated 90% of all cancer related deaths and is correlated with the presence of malignant cells in systemic circulation. This observed relationship has prompted efforts to develop a fluid biopsy, with the goal of detecting these rare cells in patient peripheral blood as surrogate markers for metastatic disease as a partial replacement or supplement to tissue biopsies. Numerous platforms have been designed, yet these have generally failed to support a reliable fluid biopsy due to poor performance parameters such as low throughput, low purity of enriched antigen positive cells, and insufficiently low detection thresholds to detect poor expressed surface markers of target cell populations. This work describes the development of a rapid cell sorting technology called Antigen Specific Lysis (ASL) based on photo-crosslinked polymer encapsulation to isolate tumor cells in suspension. In the first study, we characterize the chemical and structural properties of the surface-initiated polymer films formed directly on mammalian cell surfaces. Coated populations are shown to remain highly viable after coating formation. Biomolecular transport is examined though film coatings on cellular substrates using fluorescent, time-resolved confocal microscopy and diffusivity estimates are generated for these materials. In the next study, a lysis-based cell isolation platform is described in which marker positive cells can be specifically coated in a heterogeneous cell suspension. Anionic surfactants lyse virtually 100% of uncoated cells while fully encapsulated cells remain protected, and are then easily collected by centrifugation. We report that purified cells are released from polymeric coatings to yield viable and functional populations. We monitor cell response throughout the isolation process by multiple techniques, and report viability >80% after the sorting process. Lastly, we examine the response of process yield on the level of photoinitiator loading on target populations. Streptavidin-fluorochrome loading was quantitatively assessed on a panel of markers, both epithelial and mesenchymal, on representative model breast and lung cancer cells. We report that ASL is fundamentally capable of achieving 50-60% yield which is promising for fluid biopsy applications. Finally, both EpCAM and metastatic targeting strategies are then compared to covalently biotinylated samples to inform future robust targeting strategies.

The relaxation characteristics of rubbery poly(ethylene oxide) [PEO] networks have been investigated as a function of network composition and architecture via dynamic mechanical analysis and broadband dielectric spectroscopy. A series of model networks were prepared via UV photopolymerization using poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate [PEGDA] as crosslinker: variations in crosslink density were achieved either by the introduction of water in the prepolymerization reaction mixture, or by the inclusion of mono-functional acrylate such as poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate [PEGMEA] or poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate [PEGA]. Copolymerization with mono-functional acrylate led to the insertion of flexible branches along the network backbone, and the corresponding glass-rubber relaxation properties of the copolymers (i.e., Tg, relaxation breadth, fragility) were a sensitive function of network architecture and corresponding fractional free volume. Relatively subtle variations in network structure led to significant differences in relaxation characteristics, and a systematic series of studies was undertaken to examine the influence of branch length, branch end-group, and crosslinker flexibility on viscoelastic response. Dielectric spectroscopy was especially useful for the elucidation of localized, sub-glass relaxations in the polymer networks: the imposition of local constraint in the vicinity of the crosslink junctions led to the detection of a distinctive fast relaxation process in the networks that was similar to a comparable sub-glass relaxation observed in crystalline PEO and in the confined regions of PEO nanocomposites. Gas permeation studies on the model PEGDA networks confirmed their utility as highly-permeable, reverse-selective membrane materials, and strategic control of the network architecture could be used to optimize gas separation performance. Dynamic mechanical and dielectric measurements have also been performed on a semicrystalline polyester, poly(trimethylene terephthalate) [PTT], in order to assess the influence of processing history on the resultant morphology and corresponding viscoelastic relaxation characteristics. Studies on both quenched and annealed PTT revealed the presence of a substantial fraction of rigid amorphous phase (RAP) material in the crystalline samples: dielectric measurements showed a strong increase in relaxation intensity above the glass transition indicating a progressive mobilization of the rigid amorphous phase with increasing temperature prior to crystalline melting.

Les réseaux de polymères interpénétrés (IPNs) combinent les propriétés de leurs différents composants. Ils possèdent une bonne résistance thermique, mécanique et chimique, et s’avèrent très intéressants pour pallier les inconvénients des réseaux homopolymères. Une méthode de synthèse rapide et efficace fait appel à la photopolymérisation. Les IPNs photopolymérisés sont donc très attractifs pour l’obtention de revêtements industriels présentant des propriétés de surface avancées. Cette thèse porte sur la réalisation de revêtements hydrophobes présentant des propriétés d’auto-régénération suite à un endommagement. Le concept mis en œuvre repose sur la ségrégation vers la surface de groupements fonctionnels liés chimiquement à un réseau IPN photopolymère, par différence de tension superficielle entre la surface et l’intérieur du matériau. L’auto-régénération de la fonctionnalité de surface nécessite une distribution homogène et une mobilité suffisante des groupements fonctionnels dans la matrice polymère. Des surfaces auto-régénérantes basées sur un réseau acrylate photopolymérisé ont d’abord été développées afin de démontrer la faisabilité du concept. Des IPNs photopolymérisés sous lumière UV et naturelle, combinant deux polymères (acrylates et époxydes) possédant des Tgs faibles et élevées (auto-régénération combinée avec résistance mécanique), et présentant des morphologies différentes ont ensuite été étudiés. Des surfaces auto-régénérantes possédant une Tg plus élevée compatible avec des applications industrielles ont été obtenues. / Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) combine properties of their different components. They exhibit high mechanical strength, good thermal stability and chemical resistance. They are thus interesting to overcome the limitations of stand-alone networks. One of the easy and efficient ways to produce IPNs involves light curing. Considering these features, photocured IPNs are very attractive materials for functional polymeric surfaces in the coating industry. This thesis reports the development of hydrophobic coatings showing self-replenishing properties upon surface damage. This concept relies on the segregation of functional groups chemically bound to a light-cured IPN network towards the surface, thanks to the energy difference between surface and bulk. Surface functionality self-repairing mechanism requires a homogeneous distribution and a sufficient mobility of functional groups in the polymeric network. Self-replenishing hydrophobic surfaces based on a UV-cured acrylate network have been firstly developed in order to demonstrate the proof of concept. In a second part, UV and visible-light cured IPNs combining two polymers (acrylates and epoxides) with low and high Tgs (self-replenishing together with mechanical resistance), showing different morphologies have been investigated. Finally, self-replenishing hydrophobic surfaces with enhanced Tg more suitable for industrial applications have been obtained.

Plusieurs mécanismes de polymérisation radicalaire contrôlée (PRC) sous irradiation lumineuse ont récemment été développés. Ces approches offrent potentiellement de nombreux avantages, en permettant notamment d’introduire dans le mécanisme des PRCs certaines caractéristiques propres aux photopolymérisations, tels que les contrôles spatial et temporel de la réaction. Les travaux de thèse présentés dans ce manuscrit s’inscrivent dans ce contexte, en ayant pour objectif le développement et l’étude d’un nouveau mécanisme de polymérisation radicalaire par transfert d’atome (ATRP) photocatalysée. Après une étude bibliographique présentant l’état de l’art dans le domaine des PRCs sous irradiation lumineuse (chapitre 1), un complexe de bis(1,10-phenanthroline) cuivre (I) (Cu(I)) est utilisé comme catalyseur pour la synthèse de poly(méthacrylate de méthyle)s bien définis par ATRP menée sous l’irradiation d’une lampe LED bleue de faible intensité (chapitre 2). Le mécanisme proposé implique la formation de l’état excité Cu(I)* à partir de Cu(I) sous irradiation, suivie de sa désactivation oxydative par les composés bromés, générant les espèces actives propagatrices et la forme désactivante du complexe Cu(II). Le cycle catalytique est ensuite complété par l’ajout de triethylamine comme agent réducteur permettant la régénération in situ de la forme activante Cu(I) du complexe et conduisant ainsi à une polymérisation plus rapide. Le méthacrylate de glycidyle est ensuite considéré comme comonomère jouant simultanément le rôle d’un agent réducteur (chapitre 3). Des copolymères fonctionnels bien définis, avec une distribution contrôlée de groupes latéraux époxydes, sont ainsi synthétisés. Enfin, le mécanisme d’ATRP photocatalysé est amélioré en développant une procédure permettant la génération in situ de la forme activante Cu(I) en partant d’un complexe Cu(II) stable en présence d’air (chapitre 4). Le mécanisme ainsi développé présente une bonne tolérance à la présence d’oxygène ou d’inhibiteur dans le milieu réactionnel. Les effets de plusieurs paramètres (intensité lumineuse, concentration en ligand et nature du solvant ou du contre-ion) sont étudiés, suggérant un échange de ligand photo-induit comme processus photochimique additionnel impliqué dans le mécanisme d’ATRP photocatalysé étudié. / Several mechanisms of controlled radical polymerization (CRP) under light irradiation have been recently developed. These approaches offer potentially numerous advantages, enabling especially to introduce in the mechanism of CRPs some features characteristic of photopolymerizations, such as the spatial and temporal controls of the reaction. The PhD work presented in this manuscript comes in this framework, aiming at developing and studying a new mechanism of photocatalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). After a bibliographic study presenting the state-of-the-art in the domain of CRPs under light irradiation (chapter 1), a bis(1,10-phenanthroline) copper (I) complex (Cu(I)) is used as catalyst for the synthesis of well-defined poly(methyl methacrylate)s by ATRP carried out under the irradiation of a low intensity blue LED lamp (chapter 2). The proposed mechanism implies the formation of the excited state Cu(I)* from Cu(I) under irradiation, followed by its oxidative quenching by the brominated compounds, generating the growing active species and the deactivator form of the complex Cu(II). The catalytic cycle is then completed by the addition of triethylamine as a reducing agent enabling the in situ regeneration of the activator form of the complex Cu(I), therefore leading to a faster polymerization. Glycidyl methacrylate is then considered as a comonomer playing simultaneously the role of a reducing agent (chapter 3). Well-defined functional copolymers, with a controlled distribution of epoxide side groups, are thus synthesized. Finally, the photocatalyzed ATRP mechanism is improved by developing a procedure permitting the in situ generation of the activator Cu(I) starting directly from an air-stable Cu(II) complex (chapter 4). The mechanism developed in this way exhibits a good tolerance to the presence of oxygen or inhibitor in the reaction medium. The effects of several parameters (light intensity, ligand concentration and nature of the solvent or counter-ion) are studied, suggesting a photo-induced ligand-exchange as an additional photochemical process implied in the studied photocatalyzed ATRP mechanism.

Três macroiniciadores foram sintetizados baseados em tioxantona; MMa-co-TXA, BMa-co-TXA e HMa-co-TXA. Estes macroiniciadores possuem vantagens em relação aos compostos de baixa massa molar apesar do seu alto custo. A fotoatividade destes macroiniciadores e da tioxantona para a polimerização de monômeros monofuncional (MMA) e multifuncionais, 2,2-bis[4-(2-hidroxi-3-metacriloxipropoxi)fenil]propano (Bis-GMA) e dimetacrilato de trietilenoglicol (TEGDMA) foi examinada com as técnicas de Fotocalorimetria Exploratória Diferencial e Espectroscopia de Infravermelho por Transformada de Fourier com acessório de ATR. Os co-iniciadores usados foram as aminas EDB, TEA e DMAEMA. Todos os sistemas foram estudados na ausência de solvente. Os resultados mostraram que os macroiniciadores são mais eficientes do que o composto de baixa massa molar. Medidas de fotólise por pulso de laser permitiram obter o espectro de absorção de transientes dos compostos estudados, bem como a constante de supressão do estado triplete pelas aminas e pelo monômero. A polimerização fotoiniciada pelos macroiniciadores na presença de aminas e dos monômeros foi estudada com o objetivo de se determinar o mecanismo que leva à formação dos radicais iniciadores. Expressões para o rendimento quântico de radicais ativos foram deduzidas a partir do mecanismo proposto. Resultados mostraram que a produção de radicais ativos para os macroiniciadores é maior do que a tioxantona. / In this work three macroinitiators based on thioxanthone were synthesized and characterized; MMA-co-TXA, BMA-co-TXA and HMA-co-TXA. Macroinitiators offer some advantages when compared with their corresponding low molecular weight analog. The photopolymerization initiated by macroinitiators and thioxanthone of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and mixtures of 2,2-bis[4-(2-hydroxy- 3-metacryloxipropoxi)phenyl]propane (Bis-GMA) and triethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) was studied through Photocalorimetry (Photo-DSC) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy with ATR accessory. All systems were studied in the absence of solvent (bulk) using EDB, TEA and DMAEMA, as co-initiators. Measures of Laser Flash Photolysis determined the transient absorption spectra of the compounds and also the bimolecular rate constants for the triplet quenching of the compounds. The polymerization reaction of the macroinitiator in presence of amine and monomer was studied in order to determine the mechanism leading to the formation of radical initiators. Expressions for the quantum yield of radicals assets were deducted from the proposed mechanism. Results showed that the radical production assets to macroinitiator is greater than the thioxanthone, making macroinitiators more efficient than the low molecular weight compound.

Foram sintetizados a 5-tia-pentaceno-14-ona (TX-A) e a 5-tia-naftaceno-12-ona (TX-Np), dois compostos derivados da tioxantona, para serem usados como fotiniciadores em reações de polimerização de diacrilatos. Após purificação usando cromatografia em coluna e líquida de alta eficiência, esses compostos foram caracterizados por análise elementar (AE), espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (IV) e de ressonância magnética nuclear de próton (1H RMN). A caracterização do comportamento espectroscópico dos compostos foi feita utilizando-se espectroscopia na região do ultravioleta e visível (UV-vis) e de fluorescência. A UV-vis revelou que a TX-A apresenta maior absorção na região do visível em relação à TX-Np. Os resultados de fluorescência evidenciaram a dependência do solvente na emissão, juntamente com o comportamento das transições presentes. Os tempos de vida das espécies singlete foram determinados como sendo da ordem de nanosegundos, sendo maior em meio de solventes hidroxílicos polares. A fotólise por pulso de laser foi utilizada para estudar a absorção dos transientes, demonstrando que a TX-Np apresenta três máximos de absorção em 340, 450 e 590 nm, que foram atribuídos aos transientes do estado triplete/radical, radical cetila e ao estado triplete respectivamente, cujos tempos de vida se situam na ordem de microssegundos. Já a TX-A apresentou dois máximos de absorção em 415 e 515 nm, que correspondem à absorção do estado triplete do antraceno resultante da transferência de intramolecular de energia entre grupos da molécula. A avaliação do desempenho de ambos os compostos como fotoiniciadores foi feita com o auxílio da Fotocalorimetria Exploratória Diferencial (Foto-DSC) usando-se como modelo uma mistura dos monômeros BisGMa (dimetacrilato de bisfenilglicidila) e TEGDMA (dimetacrilato de trienilo glicol) nas proporções: 70:30; 30:70 e 50:50 (m/m), respectivamente. Estes estudos demonstraram que utilizando-se a TX-Np como fotoiniciador, a polimerização ocorreu com maior velocidade no sistema contendo maior proporção de BisGMA, que torna o sistema mais viscoso. Entretanto, maiores graus de conversão foram obtidos utilizando maiores proporções de TEGDMA, ou seja, misturas menos viscosa. Utilizando a TX-A, o sistema contendo BisGMA e TEGDMA na proporção 70:30 (m/m), apresentou maior velocidade de polimerização, enquanto a mistura contendo quantidades de massa iguais dos dois monômeros foi a que apresentou o maior grau de conversão. Quanto à influência de O2, apenas a TX-A apresentou resultado significativo na polimerização, quando o experimento foi realizado em ar. / The 5-thia-pentacene-14-one (TX-A) and 5-thia-naphthacene-12-one (TX-Np), both derivatives of thioxanthone have been synthesized and evaluated in relation to their performance as photoinitiators in diacrylates polymerization reaction. After purifying by column and liquid chromatography the compounds were characterized by elemental analysis (EA), spectroscopy in the infrared region (IR) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). The spectral behavior of the thioxanthone derivatives was performed by spectroscopy in the ultraviolet and visible range (Uv-vis) and fluorescence. The UV-vis results revealed that TX-A presents higher absorption in the visible range than the TX-Np. The fluorescence data evidenced a dependence of the solvent nature in the emission. The life time of singlet species was determined as in the nano-seconds level, being higher in polar hydroxilic solvents medium. The laser flash-photolysis was used to investigate the transients absorption, revealing that the TX-Np have three absorption maxima at 340, 450 and 590 nm, which were attributed to the triplet state/radical, cetyl radical and triplet state, respectively, whose lifetimes were in the microseconds scale. Meanwhile, the TX-A showed two absorption maxima at 415 and 515 nm corresponding to the anthracene triplet state absorption from an intramolecular energy transfer between groups of the molecule. The performance of both photoinitiators had been evaluated by Photocalorimetry, using a mixture of bisphenylglycidyl dimetacrilate (BisGMA) and triethileneglycol dimetracrylate (TEGDMA) containing 70:30; 30:70 and 50:50 (w/w) of each monomer respectively. Such studies demonstrated that using TX-Np as a photoinitiator the rate of polymerization was higher when larger amounts of BisGMA is used in the mixture, making the system more viscous. However higher conversion degrees were found when higher amounts of TEGDMA are used, that means in less viscous mixtures. When TX-A is used as a photoinitiator the system containing 70:30 (w/w) of BisGMA and TEGDMA, showed higher rate of polymerizations while the mixture containing equal amounts of both monomers presented a higher conversion degree. Concerning the O2 influence, only the TX-A presented a significant polymerization extent when the experiment was performed in the presence of air.

A introdução de resinas para uso odontológico se estabeleceu como alternativa à restauração desde meados de 1930, onde a tentativa de utilizar resinas autocuráveis fracassou, porém fortaleceu a pesquisa e esforço em busca de uma alternativa mais viável. Atualmente, a maior parte das resinas odontológicas são fotocuráveis ou termocuráveis e neste trabalho será dado enfoque nas resinas fotopolimerizáveis, que são constituídas, principalmente, por um sistema iniciador (fotoiniciador), monômeros, oligômeros (cadeias maiores formada pela junção de monômeros), aditivos (como cargas, absorvedores de luz, entre outros) e pigmentos. Na última década, um setor que ganhou largas proporções e interesses tecnológicos é o da impressão 3D. Por se tratar de uma técnica aditiva (camada-a-camada) esta forma de impressão revolucionou o modo de se projetar e aplicar diversas estruturas na solução de problemas, inclusive na área odontológica. Dentre os diversos tipos de impressora 3D, a DLP (digital light projection) foi a que apresentou melhor relação de benefícios em função do seu custo reduzido, alta resolução e praticidade na impressão. O presente trabalho apresenta o estudo da influência da cinética de fotopolimerização na qualidade de peças impressas por meio de impressão 3D DLP e como este fator afeta propriedades físicas e químicas, tais como dureza e grau de conversão. Os experimentos de p-DSC juntamente com FT-IR mostraram como a presença de um bloqueador pode afetar a cinética de fotopolimerização e o grau de conversão a curto e longo prazo, onde para o BAPO observa-se uma baixa contribuição deste composto na redução da velocidade, mas para o TPO o resultado é mais acentuado. Com os dados de dureza, foi possível observar que a presença do bloqueador leva a uma diminuição do valor obtido. Já as fotomicrografias obtidas revelaram que o absorvedor UV apresentou grande contribuição para a resolução das peças impressas, com resultado mais significativo para o fotoiniciador TPO. Dados de DSC foram analisados para correlacionar com o monômero residual presente, onde foi observado um pico exotérmico com área praticamente constante em situações otimizadas, levando a uma conclusão que o máximo de resolução está diretamente relacionado com o grau de conversão obtido no processo de impressão 3D. / The introduction of resins for the dental Market was stablished around 1930, where the self-cure resins development failed and lead the world to develop a new alternative for dental application. Recently, most of the dental resin are photo curable or thermal curable and in the present work the first one will be the focus and are composed of an initiation system (photo-initiator), monomers, additives and pigments. In the past decade, another sector, which achieve large proportion and technological interest, is the one about 3D printing. Due to the fact of being an additive technique, this type of 3D printing made a revolution in the way of projecting and building complex structures, even in the dental business. Among all the available 3D printers, the DLP (digital light projection) is the one who showed the best relationship between price, resolution and convenience in 3D printing. This work presents a study of how the photopolimerization kinetics can affect the quality of 3D printed parts and how it affects some physical-chemical properties, like hardness and degree of conversion. The p-DSC experiments within the FT-IR showed that the presence of an UV blocker might affect the photopolimerization kinetics and the degree of conversion in a short and long term, in which for BAPO it shows a lower contribution from this compound in the reaction rate, but for TPO it is more marked. According to the hardness data, it was possible to observe that the presence of an absorber leads to a lower value. In respect to the photomicrographs, it reveals the good contribution of an UV blocker in the resolution obtained for the printed parts, with a better performance when added to the TPO case. For the DSC experiments, the observation is that there is a correlation with residual monomer, where an exothermic spike with constant area was present for the same optimized conditions, leading to the fact that to achieve the best resolution it is necessary to reach a certain degree of conversion during the process of 3D printing.

Neste trabalho foi estudada a influência da adição de quitosana e sílica a monômeros dimetacrílicos, BisEMA e TEGDMA, por meio das técnicas de fotocalorimetria, termogravimetria e análise dinâmico mecânica. Os resultados dos experimentos de fotocalorimetria demonstraram que a quitosana pode aumentar a velocidade de polimerização e o máximo de conversão para alguns sistemas em determinadas concentrações da mesma, já a sílica tem pouco efeito nas reações de fotopolimerização das amostras. Para os experimentos de termogravimetria, a quitosana tem pouca influência na degradação das amostras não alterando significativamente as curvas TGA/DTG, por outro lado a sílica acelerou a degradação térmica das amostras. A avaliação das propriedades mecânicas demonstrou que a quitosana diminui a temperatura de transição vítrea e a resposta elástica dos sistemas não afetando os valores dos módulos de armazenamento e módulos de perda. A sílica apresentou a tendência de aumento de temperatura de transição vítrea e não alteração da resposta elástica das amostras. / In this work we studied the influence of the addition of chitosan and silica in dimethacrylic monomers, BisEMA and TEGDMA, by photocalorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis. The results of photocalorimetry experiments demonstrated that chitosan can increase the polymerization rate and the degree of conversion for some concentrations. Silica has little effect on photopolymerization reactions of samples. For thermogravimetric experiments, chitosan has little influence on the degradation of samples and does a slightly change the TGA / DTG curves, on the other hand silica accelerated thermal degradation of the samples. The evaluation of mechanical properties showed that chitosan reduces the glass transition temperature and elastic response of the samples but does not affect the values of the storage modulus and loss modulus. Silica showed an effect of increasing glass transition temperature and almost no change in the elastic response of the samples.

Les problématiques et potentialités de la photopolymérisation radicalaire en miniémulsion ont été discutées, en partant de l’étude des propriétés optiques des miniémulsions de monomère jusqu’à la synthèse de nouvelles nanoparticules polysulfures semi-cristallines par réaction thiol-ène. En premier lieu, l'interaction entre les propriétés optiques de miniémulsion de monomère et l'efficacité de photopolymérisation a été clarifiée. Nous avons établi le rôle majeur de la diffusion optique sur les cinétiques de photopolymérisation de nanogouttelettes acrylates, tandis que l'absorption s’est révélé de moindre importance. Que ce soit en milieu dilué ou concentré (modèle de Kubelka-Munk), la diffusion de la lumière est atténuée lorsque la taille de gouttelettes diminue. La conséquence immédiate est une amélioration significative de la pénétration de la lumière induisant une accélération des cinétiques de polymérisation. Néanmoins, cette conclusion doit être pondérée car l’effet de compartimentage de la polymérisation radicalaire n’a pu être dissocié des effets optiques. On notera qu’en milieu concentré (contenu en solide de 30 % massique), au-delà de 150 nm pour le diamètre de gouttelette, le coefficient de diffusion atteint un palier et devient indépendant de la taille des gouttelettes. La chute d’absorbance, observée par spectroscopie UV-visible, tout au long de l’irradiation pour des miniémulsions acrylates de faible taille (40 nm) a mis en évidence un mécanisme de polymérisation par diffusion de monomère des gouttelettes non nucléées vers les particules en croissance. Cette analyse non invasive (aucune dilution n’a été nécessaire) présente un intérêt évident pour l’étude du mécanisme de nucléation. Nous avons ensuite démontré que la photopolymérisation pouvait être réalisée en utilisant le caractère auto-amorçant des acrylates sous irradiation UV court ( < 300 nm). Ce type d’amorçage photochimique a permis d’éviter l’emploi de photoamorceur, limitant ainsi les risques liés à leur présence résiduelle dans le matériau final. Les photopolymérisations ont été réalisées dans un microréacteur modèle (cuve spectroscopique d’épaisseur 0,1 à 1 mm). La variation de plusieurs paramètres expérimentaux a permis d’identifier un ensemble de paramètres clés influençant les cinétiques de polymérisation tels que la taille des gouttelettes, corroborant ainsi les résultats de l’étude optique. Les longueurs d’onde d’irradiation et le chemin optique ont joué un rôle tout aussi déterminant ; le décalage vers des longueurs d’onde courtes et la diminution de l’épaisseur de l’échantillon accélèrent à la fois la création de radicaux amorceurs et le nombre d’entités nucléées. La versatilité du procédé a été démontrée en polymérisant rapidement (conversion totale en moins de 20 min) une large gamme de monomères acrylate, méthacrylate ou à base d’acétate de vinyle. En ce qui concerne le mécanisme d’auto-amorçage, nous avons prouvé que les espèces amorçantes provenaient vraisemblablement d’un biradical photoinduit, pouvant arracher ou transférer un hydrogène sur des molécules de monomère pour former des monoradicaux amorceurs. Par le biais de ce mécanisme original, la génération de radicaux est constante tout au long de la polymérisation ce qui pour effet d’impacter les caractéristiques des copolymères formés : l’indice de polymolécularité tend à augmenter et les masses molaires à diminuer par rapport à un processus photoamorcé conventionnel. Ces photopolymérisations ont été réalisées dans un photoréacteur annulaire à immersion et ont montré les mêmes évolutions en fonction de la taille de gouttelettes que lors d’expériences en cuve spectroscopique non agitées. A titre d’exemple, une conversion totale est atteinte en 1 h pour des tailles de gouttelettes de 60 nm et un contenu en solide de 30 %. L’auto-amorçage photoinduit a permis de générer rapidement une grande quantité de chaînes en croissance au sein des gouttelettes. [...] / Issues and potentials of miniemulsion radical photopolymerization were discussed, starting from monomer miniemulsions’ optical properties to the synthesis of new semi-crystalline polysulfide nanoparticles by thiol-ene reaction. First, the relationship between the optical properties of miniemulsion and the polymerization efficiency was clarified. We established the major role of optical scattering on the acrylate nanodroplets’ photopolymerization kinetic, while the absorption was found to play a minor role. Whether diluted or concentrated medium (Kubelka-Munk model), light scattering is attenuated when droplet size decreased. The corollary is a significant improvement of UV light penetration within the reactor vessel leading to an acceleration of the polymerization kinetics. However, this conclusion was mitigated by the fact that compartmentalization effect could not be easily dissociated from optical effects. Note that in concentrated medium (solids content of 30 wt %), beyond 150 nm droplet diameter, the scattering coefficient leveled off regardless of droplet size. An absorbance drop was observed using UV-visible spectroscopy throughout the irradiation of the smallest acrylate miniemulsions (40 nm). This result suggested a polymerization mechanism occurring by monomer diffusion from non-nucleated droplets to growing particles. This non-invasive analysis (no dilution was required) is of high interest to study the nucleation mechanism.In a second part, we demonstrated that acrylate miniemulsion photopolymerization could be performed through a monomer self-initiation mechanism induced by short-wavelength UV irradiation ( < 300 nm). Such original photochemical initiation avoided the use of photoinitiator, thus limiting the risks associated with their residual presence in the final material. The self-initiated photopolymerizations were carried out in a model microreactor (spectroscopic cell of 0.1 to 1 mm thick). The variation of several parameters allowed us to identify key parameters influencing polymerization kinetics such as droplet size, thus corroborating the results of the optical study. The irradiation wavelength and the optical path played a crucial role; the shift towards shorter wavelengths and the sample thickness reduction accelerated both the generation of initiating radicals and the number of nucleated entities. The versatility of the method was demonstrated by fast polymerization (complete conversion achieved within 20 minutes) employing a wide range of acrylate, methacrylate and vinyl acetate monomers. Regarding the self-initiating mechanism, one proved that the initiating species likely originated from a biradical able to abstract or transfer hydrogen from monomer molecules, thereby forming initiating monoradicals. Through this original mechanism, the generation of radicals was constant throughout the polymerization, which impacted the characteristics of the copolymer chains: the polydispersity index tended to increase and the molar masses decreases when compared with a conventional photoinduced process. These photopolymerizations were also carried out in an annular immersion photoreactor and showed the same trends regarding the effect of droplet size as the experiments conducted in unstirred spectroscopic tank. For example, a complete conversion was reached after 1 h for a 60 nm acrylate miniemulsion with a solids content of 30 wt %. As a result, a self-initiated polymerization can generate rapidly a large amount of insoluble growing polymer chains within the droplets. This unique feature was exploited to overcome Ostwald ripening without the addition of a specific costabilizer. Photochemical self-initiation could also be used to form surfactant-free nanolatex via Pickering-stabilized miniemulsion photopolymerization. Indeed, Laponite clay adsorbed at the surface of the droplets showed an excellent UV transparency up to 200 nm. [...]