During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised iron stores. This study evaluated inflammation, immune function and iron status in athletes completing a 50K ultramarathon. Twenty-two well-trained distance runners, 11 males and 11 females, were randomized in a double blind manner into--1) those who consumed 300 mg vitamin E and 1000 mg vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) or 2) placebos--for six weeks before and one week following a 50K ultramarathon race. Blood samples were obtained on 13 separate occasions throughout the study: before supplementation, during supplementation, the day before the race, pre-race, mid-race, immediately post-race, 2 hours following the race, and daily for six days following the race. Plasma levels of ascorbic acid and ��-tocopherol were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-�� (TNF-��), and interleukin-1�� (IL-1��) were measured using standard clinical assays. Each subject recorded immune function in an activity log and incidence of illness was tabulated as number of days ill. Ferritin was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and total-iron binding capacity (TIBC) and serum total iron were analyzed by standard procedures. Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and ��-tocopherol increased significantly in supplemented subjects (p<0.0001). Although the ultramarathon race elicited an inflammatory response, antioxidant supplementation did not alter the responses of IL-6 and TNF-��, which both increased from pre-race to mid-race, post- and post-2 h (Scheffe post-hoc analysis, p<0.0001) and returned to pre-race concentrations by 1 day after the race. Male supplemented subjects had lower IL-1�� concentrations compared to females consuming the supplement or to males consuming the placebo (ANCOVA, gender/time/treatment interaction; p<0.01) at mid-race (p<0.05 females, p<0.005 males), post 1 and 2 days (all p<0.002). Males had significantly higher ferritin levels than the female subjects (ANOVA, p<0.0001); supplementation resulted in lower ferritin concentrations at post-5 days (p<0.02, ANCOVA treatment time interaction, p<0.005). Supplementation did not reduce the days illness among those consuming antioxidants compared to those consuming the placebos. Ferritin not only increases during inflammation, it also is a measure of iron stores. Females had significantly lower levels of iron than the male subjects for each of the iron parameters measured (hemoglobin and hematocrit both p<0.0001, ferritin p<0.001, TIBC p<0.02) excluding serum total iron. The ferritin concentrations measured in the women were indicative of depleted iron stores (<12 ��g/l), and antioxidant supplementation increased hematocrit levels in the female subjects (p<0.05). This investigation indicates that female distance runners need to be aware of an increased susceptibility to iron depletion compared to their male counterparts. Antioxidant supplementation improved hematocrit levels (p<0.05) among female runners and may improve iron status among females with depleted stores. Although other investigations have suggested that antioxidant vitamins decrease exercise induced inflammation, no profound benefit of supplementation was found in this investigation though a response similar to the acute phase response was elicited by the ultramarathon race. Improvements in IL-i and ferritin in response to antioxidant supplementation may indicate that the supplementation was beneficial, but more research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. / Graduation date: 2003

Pacific lampreys (Lampetra tridentata) have declined in abundance in the Columbia River Basin. Although, the reasons for the decline are unclear, we suggest that development of hydroelectric dams and habitat alterations in tributaries as the main causes. The available knowledge of life history of Pacific lampreys and status from dam counts (trend data) in the Columbia River Basin and the Umpqua River along the Oregon Coast shows that populations have been declining over the last 30 years. Even though Pacific lampreys have been shown to have ecological importance both as predator and prey, the declines in their populations have been largely ignored by fisheries agencies and the public. Recently, the National Marine Fisheries Service initiated studies on using radio-telemetry of Pacific lampreys in order to study the impact of hydroelectric dams on migration behavior. To address one of the fundamental assumptions of radio-telemetry, namely, that tagged fish are "normal," one must be able to measure whether or not an animal is stressed. We identified clinical indicators of stress in adult Pacific lampreys. Plasma glucose became elevated soon after acute stress and remained elevated for one week. Plasma lactate also became elevated by 30 minutes; however, it decreased to resting levels by one hour after stessor. Muscle lactate was shown to have an inverse relationship with glucose. Muscle lactate levels decreased by 4 hours and remained depressed for two days. Plasma chloride ions decreased by one hour, then returned to resting levels by 8 hours; by 24 hours, levels were again decreased with recovery occurring by 48 hours. The steroid cortisol was not found in the plasma of Pacific lampreys. The swimming performance and physiological effects of surgical implantation of three different sized dummy radio transmitters in Pacific lampreys were assessed. Intraperitoneal implantations of 3.4 g transmitters had no significant effect on circulating levels of glucose (an indicator of stress) 4 months after surgery, while 10 gram transmitters showed a significant increase in plasma glucose. Lampreys implanted with 7.4 g transmitters recovered from surgery by day 4 based on levels of plasma glucose. Lampreys implanted intraperitoneally with 7.4 g dummy transmitters showed no significant differences in circulating glucose 30, 60, 90, and 180 days after surgery in comparison to sham-implant controls. Ventilation rate decreased significantly by 30 minutes after surgery and was stable by 60 minutes; suggesting initial recovery from surgery is rapid. Swimming performance was impaired immediately after surgery; however, swimming was not compromised at 1 and 7 days after surgery. Tagged fish showed a significant difference in oxygen consumption when tested immediately after surgery; however, oxygen consumption was at control levels at 1 and 7 days after surgery. / Graduation date: 2001

Electrofishing is a sampling tool commonly used by fisheries researchers. While much is known about the effects of electroshock on fish physiology, consequences to the immune system and disease progression have not received attention. To understand the effects of electroshock on immune function we undertook a comparison of electroshock and handling stress in regards to selected immune functions and disease progression in juvenile spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). The handling stress treatment was included to insure the responsiveness of the fish. Our objectives were to determine the effects of electroshock on immune function, determine the mechanism of any observed alteration, and to determine the effects of electroshock on disease progression. Skin mucous lysozyme concentrations were not affected by exposure to electroshock. Respiratory burst activity may be enhanced in leukocytes immediately after an in vitro electroshock. Any effect in vivo, however, appears to be brief given the lack of differences observed 3 h after exposure. The specific immune response, measured as the ability of anterior kidney leukocytes to generate antibody producing cells (APC), was suppressed 3 h after electroshock, but recovered within 24 h. This response was similar in timing and magnitude to that of fish subjected to an acute handling stress. The mechanism of suppression is hypothesized to be via elevation of plasma cortisol concentrations. The ability to generate APC may be suppressed 7 d after electroshock, but it is not evident what mechanism is responsible for this suppression. There was some evidence that the progression of a Renibacterium salmoninarum (RS) infection was altered after exposure to an electroshock. Exposure to electroshock did not have a clear affect on the severity of infection or the number of mortalities, but may have accelerated the time to death in infected fish that died. The limited duration of specific immune suppression and lack of effect on mortality in RS infected fish lead us to conclude that electrofishing under the conditions we tested is a safe procedure in regards to immunity and disease. / Graduation date: 2000

Graduation date: 1997

A key mechanism utilized by plants to make iron (Fe) available for uptake is the reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II) via an inducible, plasma membrane-bound Fe(III) reductase. Genes encoding such enzymes have not yet been isolated from plants; however, two Fe(III) reductases have been cloned from yeast. FRE1 and FRE2 account for the total membrane-associated Fe(III) reductase activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. If yeast reductase genes could be expressed in a plant system, root Fe(III) reduction may be enhanced, leading to a decrease in Fe chlorosis in transgenic plants. FRE1 and FRE2 were introduced into tobacco via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Fe(III) reductase activity was measured in homozygous transformants containing FRE1, FRE2, or both. The highest Fe(III) reduction levels were found in lines containing both FRE1 and FRE2. Liquid reductase assays showed three to four times more Fe(III) reduction in these transformants as compared to controls, and visual plate assays showed reduction along the entire length of the roots. One FRE1 containing line initially exhibited chlorosis on medium with low Fe at pH 7.5, but later recovered. Other transformants and the control remained chlorotic. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation often produces mutant phenotypes. A temperature-dependent morphological mutant was found among the progeny of tobacco transformed by Agrobacterium. The mutation is recessive and is expressed at low temperature (21��C). Mutant characteristics include formation of thick, narrow leaves with abnormal mesophyll cells and near absence of apical dominance. Also in the greenhouse (21-23��C), most plants remain vegetative, and the few flowers that are formed have petaloid stamens. High temperature (30��C) reverses the mutant phenotype, with formation of normal leaves and restoration of apical dominance. However, many flowers still have petaloid stamens. This mutant shares several phenotypic characteristics with transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing maize and Arabidopsis homeodomain proteins. / Graduation date: 1997

Graduation date: 1995

Graduation date: 1994

Sulfite mutants representing five complementation groups, previously derived from an ethyl methanesulfonate-treated haploid strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were studied. Although the wildtype S. cerevisiae strain used (isogenic to X2180-1 A) had a basal tolerance for sulfite (7 μM free H₂SO₃), the sensitive and resistant mutants were found to tolerate less than 3 to 5.5, or greater than 19 μM free H₂SO₃, respectively. No apparent correlation was found between the response to sulfite and generation time in rich (YEPD) or minimal media. Resistant mutant 11-1 had an extended lag phase relative to wildtype. Mutant and wildtype proteins were labeled with ³⁵S-methionine to determine differences in banding patterns due to sulfite-specific induction or disappearance of polypeptides. No obvious differences following SDS-PAGE and autoradiography were observed upon induction with 0.213 μM free H₂SO₃. No consistent correlations were found between the sulfite phenotypes and responses to other reducing agents. Sensitive mutant 35-2 appeared to be three to ten times more sensitive to dithiothreitol than wildtype and sensitive mutant 47-9 was three to four times more sensitive to sodium nitrite and three to seven times more sensitive to sodium thiosulfate than wildtype. Log phase cells of sensitive mutant 33-2 were found to have significantly less glutathione than wildtype. Wildtype contained 62.6 nmol min⁻¹ mg protein⁻¹ (62.6 mU mg protein⁻¹) glutathione reductase (GR) and 2.78 nmol min⁻¹ mg protein⁻¹ (2.78 mU mg protein⁻¹) glutathione S-transferase (GST). Log phase cells of one resistant mutant showed a significantly higher level of GR than wildtype, 135%. The resistant mutants as well as some of the sensitive mutants had reduced GST levels. Survival rates of the mutants in buffer in the presence of sulfite did not correlate with their sensitive or resistant phenotypes, suggesting that survival and growth in the presence of sulfite are not necessarily related functions. Relative to wildtype, survival upon prolonged storage at 4°C was markedly reduced for two of the four sensitive mutants, one of which was 33-2, and was enhanced for one resistant and another sensitive mutant. / Graduation date: 1992

Graduation date: 1993

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the relationship among caffeine consumption, levels of trait anxiety, and the personality factor of introversion/ extraversion on performance. In Phase I of this study, volunteers were screened for introversion/extraversi on using the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and fhigh/low trait anxiety using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Based on the results of the two screening instruments the volunteers were categorized as high trait-anxious introverts (HTA/I), low trait-anxious introverts (LTA/I), high trait-anxious extraverts (HTA/E), or low trait-anxious extraverts (LTA/E). Using a table of random numbers, 30 subjects from each category were selected. These subjects were further randomly assigned to one of the two treatment levels of caffeine.In Phase II of this study each of the 120 subjects consumed either two milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body weight or four milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body weight in six ounces of Tang. After a 45-minute waiting period for the caffeine to enter the blood system, each subject completed the performance task, a seven-minute modified version of the Digit Symbol Scale (DSS) of the Wechsler Adult Intelliqence Scale (WAIS). The dependent variable was the total number of correct responses out of a possible score of 490.The hypotheses were tested using a Three-Way Analysis of Variance, and the F-test was applied to determine statistical significance. None of the three null hypotheses were rejected.