Le phytoplancton est un élément primordial dans les réseaux trophiques marins et il est un acteur principal dans les cycles biogéochimiques de la planète. Cependant, des incertitudes subsistent autour des facteurs environnementaux influençant sa saisonnalité ainsi que sa capacité à se développer. L’objectif majeur de cette thèse est d’étudier la réponse du phytoplancton à la variabilité interannuelle des facteurs environnementaux en Mer Méditerranée. Plus précisément, il s’agit de déterminer l’influence de ces derniers sur la saisonnalité du phytoplancton.Dans un premier temps, la variabilité interannuelle des cycles annuels de biomasses phytoplanctoniques observables en Méditerranée a été analysée. Certaines régions, tel que les zones de formation d’eau dense, présentent une variabilité interannuelle importante. L’une des régions les plus variables est la zone de formation d’eau dense en Méditerranée Nord-Occidentale. Une approche multi-outils basée sur des observations a été mise en place pour l’étude des variations spatiale et temporelle de la saisonnalité du phytoplancton dans cette région. Le rôle crucial du mélange vertical et de la disponibilité en lumière sur la saisonnalité du phytoplancton a été évalué. Il est démontré qu’une couche de mélange profonde pendant l’hiver augmente l’intensité du bloom phytoplanctonique printanier, due à une présence plus importante dans la communauté phytoplanctonique de micro-phytoplancton. En conséquence, le taux de production primaire printanier augmente. Enfin, ces modifications de la communauté phytoplanctonique et de la production provoquent une augmentation du stock de carbone organique produit au printemps. / The phytoplankton are essential for the oceanic trophic webs and for biogeochemical cycles on Earth. However, uncertainties remain about the environmental factors influencing its seasonality, and its growing efficiency. The main objective of this thesis is to characterize the responses of the phytoplankton to the interannual variability of the environmental factors, in the Mediterranean Sea. More precisely, we aim to assess the influence of the environmental factors on phytoplankton seasonality. The interannual variability of the phytoplankton annual cycles are analyzed in the Mediterranean Sea, thus highlighting the regions associated with annual cycle variability, like the ones where deep-water formation events occur recurrently. One of these regions is the North-Western Mediterranean Sea. A multiplatform approach based on in situ observations is implemented to analyze the spatial and temporal variability of the phytoplankton seasonality in this particular region. The influences of mixed layer depth and the light availability on phytoplankton seasonality are assessed. An intense deepening of the mixed layer (related to the deep convection) increases the magnitude of the phytoplankton spring bloom. Moreover, the strong deepening of mixed layer seems to induce favorable conditions for an important accumulation of micro-phytoplankton (composed of diatoms mainly). In turn, the phytoplankton production rate increases, mostly, the primary production rate of diatoms. Finally, at the scale of the North-Western Mediterranean Sea, the shift in the phytoplankton community structure and in production induces an increase of the organic carbon stock produced during spring.

Climate change scenarios predict that seawater temperature and precipitation will increase in the Baltic Sea region during the next century. In the northern part of the Baltic Sea, increasing inflows of the terrestrial allochthonous dissolved organic matter (ADOM) are expected to be a major consequence of elevated rainfall, which can alter light and nutrient availability for phytoplankton. The aim of my thesis was to elucidate effects of ADOM on phytoplankton production, community, size-structure and nutritional strategy along offshore south-north gradients in the Baltic Sea, as well as in estuarine systems exposed to seasonal variation in river discharge. Field studies, a mesocosm experiment and a modeling study were used to explore these issues. Results from the field studies and mesocosm experiment illustrated that the nutritional strategy, size-structure and cellular pigment content of the phytoplankton were governed by changes in ADOM, and thus in light and nutrient availability. A summer study along an offshore south-north gradient showed that the proportion of mixotrophic phytoplankton increased towards the north. In this area the concentrations humic substances (proxy for ADOM) were high, while the light availability and phosphorus concentrations were relatively low. The phytoplankton cells responded to reduced light availability by increasing their chlorophyll a: carbon ratio. Additionally, the levels of photoprotective pigments decreased from south to north, as a result of acclimation to a low-light environment and reduced exposure to ultraviolet radiation. According to ecological assumptions picophytoplankton should be favored in light- and nutrient-limited environments. However, the results did not follow that pattern, the proportion of picophytoplankton being highest in the relatively nutrient rich Baltic Proper. The study was performed during the decline of an extensive bloom of filamentous cyanobacteria, a successional phase in which picophytoplankton often dominate the phytoplankton community. The estuarine studies performed in the Bothnian Bay (Råne estuary) and in the Bothnian Sea (Öre estuary) showed different successions. In the Råne estuary no spring phytoplankton bloom occurred and highest primary production was observed during the summer. This absence of a spring bloom was explained by low phosphorus and high ADOM concentrations, while the summer maximum could be explained by higher temperature and nutrient concentrations. In the Öre estuary a marked phytoplankton spring bloom was observed as well as an ADOM sustained bacterial production phase. The later secondary peak of bacterial production observed in summer, concomitant with an extended secondary primary production peak, suggests that autochthonous dissolved organic matter supported the bacterial growth Furthermore, the photosynthetic efficiency (i.e. phytoplankton growth rates) was lower during spring, indicating that high ADOM, and thus lower light and phosphorus availability, disfavored phytoplankton growth. Our modeling study showed that climate change can impact the food web; however effects will be different between basins. In the southern Baltic Sea elevated temperature and nutrient discharge may promote nutrient recycling and oxygen consumption, potentially extending anoxic areas, sediment nutrient release and cyanobacteria blooms. In the north, increased inflow of ADOM may promote heterotrophic bacterial production and decrease primary production due to light attenuation and lower phosphorus availability. This will favor the heterotrophic microbial food web and consequently lead to lower food web efficiency of the ecosystem.

Doctor Educationis / Analysis of temperature, rainfall and evaporation records over a 44-year period spanning the years 1964 to 2008 indicates changes in the climate around Lake Kariba. Mean annual temperatures have increased by approximately 1.5oC, and pan evaporation rates by about 25%, with rainfall having declined by an average of 27.1 mm since 1964 at an average rate of 6.3 mm per decade. At the same time, lake water temperatures, evaporation rates, and water loss from the lake have increased, which have adversely affected lake water levels, nutrient and thermal dynamics. The most prominent influence of the changing climate on Lake Kariba has been a reduction in the lake water levels, averaging 9.5 m over the past two decades. These are associated with increased warming, reduced rainfall and diminished water and therefore nutrient inflow into the lake. The warmer climate has increased temperatures in the upper layers of lake water, the epilimnion, by an overall average of 1.9°C between 1965 and 2009. The warmer epilimnion has led to a more stable thermocline in the lake, and its upward migration from a previously reported 20 m depth to the current 2 to 5 m depth reported in the lake’s Sanyati Basin. A consequence of the more stable thermocline has been the trapping of greater amounts of nutrients in the deep, cold bottom waters of the lake, the hypolimnion, and this coupled with a shorter mixing (turnover) period is leading to reduced nutrient availability within the epilimnion. This is evident from a measured 50% reduction in nitrogen levels within the epilimnion, with phosphorus levels displaying a much smaller net decline due to localised sources of pollution inflows into the lake. These changes in lake thermal dynamics and density stratification have reduced the volume of the lake epilimnion by ~50%, which includes the well mixed, oxygenated euphotic zone leading to more acidic waters (lower pH) and increased water ionic concentrations (conductivity), and decreased dissolved oxygen levels, which have resulted in a 95% reduction in phytoplankton biomass and a 57% decline in primary production rates since the 1980s. The reduced nitrogen levels especially have contributed to a proliferation of nitrogen-fixing Cyanophyceae, the dominant Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii comprising up to 66% of the total phytoplankton biomass and 45.6% of the measured total phytoplankton cellular concentrations. Also, shifts in seasonal dominance of different phytoplankton groups have been observed in the lake during turnover, the Cyanophyceae having increased in dominance from 60% of the total phytoplankton biomass in the early 1980’s to the current 75%. In contrast, the Bacillariophyceae have declined substantially, from 18% of the total phytoplankton biomass in the early 1980’s to the current 1.7%. The diminished phytoplankton biomass of more palatable phytoplankton, and the proliferation of smaller, less palatable phytoplankton taxa, has resulted in reduced zooplankton biomass and species richness and altered zooplankton species composition. Concentrations of large Cladocera and Copepoda especially have declined substantially in the lake by up to 93.3% since the mid 1970s, with small Rotifera currently comprising 64% of the total zooplankton biomass. The reductions in zooplankton biomass correspond with recorded decreases in catches per unit effort for the sardine Limnothrissa miodon (Kapenta), which have been steadily declining in the lake since 1986.

As part of a long-term monitoring programme initiated by the South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) Elwandle Node, the spatio-temporal dynamics of mesozooplankton (200–2000 μm) community structure in Algoa Bay, on the Eastern Cape coastline of southern Africa, was investigated in summer and winter of 2008. Physical-chemical and biological variables were measured at selected sites in the eastern and western sectors of the Bay. During summer, nutrient rich waters upwelling into the eastern sector of the Bay contributed to significant spatial variation in selected physical-chemical variables. During winter, virtually no significant spatial patterns in the physical-chemical variables were observed (P>0.05 in all cases). For the majority of physical-chemical variables, no significant seasonal patterns in values were detected (P>0.05 in all cases). Notable exceptions were water column stability and water temperatures which were highest during summer, and seston, turbidity and ammonium concentrations which attained the highest values in winter. The striking seasonal pattern observed in the water column stability, coupled with the upwelling event, coincided with a strong seasonal pattern in the total surface and integrated chlorophyll-a concentrations within the Bay. During summer, the total surface phytoplankton biomass ranged from 1.87–3.11 μg.L⁻¹ and the integrated biomass values between 44.6 and 89.1 mg chl-a m⁻². In winter, surface chl-a concentrations ranged from 0.49 to 0.55 μg.L⁻¹ and integrated biomass from 13.5 to 13.8 mg chl-a m⁻². During both seasons, the large microphytoplankton (>20 μm) fraction contributed the most (>80%) to the total phytoplankton biomass suggesting that phytoplankton growth is not nutrient limited within the Bay. The total mesozooplankton abundance and biomass values during summer varied between 10088.92 and 28283.21 ind.m⁻³ and between 76.59 and 161.94 mg.m⁻³, respectively. During winter, total abundance and biomass of mesozooplankton within the Bay were significantly lower, ranging from 2392.49 to 11145.29 ind.m⁻³, and from 34.49 to 42.49 mg.m⁻³, respectively (P<0.05). During both seasons, cosmopolitan copepod species 200–500μm in size dominated the total mesozooplankton counts, numerically and in biomass. Hierarchical cluster analyses identified distinct zooplankton groupings within the Bay during both the summer (three groupings) and winter (four groupings) surveys. The different groupings identified during the two seasons were not associated with any specific geographic region or hydrological feature. Nonetheless, a distinct seasonal pattern in the mesozooplankton community was evident, largely reflecting the increased abundance of mesozooplankton during the summer survey. Canonical Correspondence Analyses (CCA) indicated that the zooplankton community structure within Algoa Bay reflected a complex interaction between physical-chemical (e.g. temperature, water column stability, turbidity, and nitrate, dissolved oxygen and nitrite concentrations) and biological factors (e.g. microphytoplankton and picophytoplankton concentrations). These data provide baseline information towards long-term monitoring programs that will be conducted in Algoa Bay, as part of the South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON), in the near future.

Les dérèglements climatiques engendrés par l’activité anthropique vont fortement perturber les écosystèmes naturels dans un futur proche. Les écosystèmes marins, déjà soumis à la forte variabilité de leur environnement, sont donc fortement menacés. Au sein de ces communautés, le phytoplancton a un rôle primordial dans les réseaux trophiques, ainsi que pour les processus régulant le climat. Comprendre l’évolution de ces communautés dans un monde en perpétuel changement est l’un des enjeux de l’océanographie. Parmi les facteurs influençant le phytoplancton, les virus jouent un rôle primordial de par leur capacité à induire une lyse cellulaire. Ils contrôlent ainsi la dynamique phytoplanctonique. Il est donc indispensable de comprendre comment l’impact des virus sur ces communautés va évoluer dans le contexte de changement climatique. Cette thèse explore ainsi le rôle de la température dans les interactions entre le phytoplancton et les virus grâce à une approche intégrée reliant expériences en laboratoire et modélisation mathématique. Dans notre travail, nous nous sommes intéressé plus particulièrement aux pico-eucaryotes du genre Micromonas. Dans une première étude, nous avons caractérisé la réponse à la température du genre Micromonas en étudiant 11 souches différentes. Nous avons montré le rôle primordial de la température sur l’écologie du phytoplancton. En particulier, nous avons démontré que la température océanique avait joué un rôle décisif dans l’évolution. Ainsi, nous avons pu prédire l’évolution de la biodiversité dans un océan en voie de réchauffement. Dans une deuxième étude nous avons montré que la température est un facteur clef dans le contrôle de la dynamique phytoplancton – virus. La température affecte notamment les taux de perte d'infectiosité et de dégradation des virus, ainsi que le taux de production de virus. En particulier, nous avons observé un changement de stratégie d’infection. Au-delà d’une température proche de la température optimale de croissance, les dynamiques deviennent plus complexes suggérant un changement de stratégie d'infection, qui passerait de lytique à chronique. Dans une troisième étude, nous avons modélisé ces interactions et avons pu reproduire les changements observés en fonction de la température. Nous avons discuté du rôle de la température sur les processus d’infection mis en jeux. / Climate changes induced by human activities will deeply impact natural ecosystems. Marine ecosystems, leaving in a highly variable environment, are therefore threatened. Within these communities, phytoplankton have a primordial role in the trophic web and in the regulation of climate processes. Understanding the evolution of these communities in a warming world is an issue of oceanography. Among factor affecting phytoplankton dynamics, viruses play a key role through their capacity to lyse their hosts. They are therefore controlling the phytoplankton population dynamics. It is then crucial to understand how the viruses impact will evolve in a warming ocean. In this thesis we explore the impact of temperature on these interactions with an integrative method combining laboratory experiments and mathematical modelling. We focus on the pico-eukaryote genus Micromonas. In a first study, we have characterized the temperature response of the Micromonas genus by studying 11 different strains. We have shown the primordial role of temperature on the ecology of phytoplankton. In particular, we have demonstrated that ocean temperature has played a decisive role in evolution. Thus, we have been able to predict the evolution of biodiversity in a warming ocean. In a second study we showed that temperature is a key factor in controlling the phytoplankton - virus dynamics. The temperature affects in particular the rates of infectivity loss and of virus degradation, as well as the rate of virus production. In particular, we observed a change in infection strategy. Beyond a temperature close to the optimal growth temperature, the dynamics become more complex suggesting a change in infection strategy from lytic to chronic. In a third study, we have developed a mathematical model representing these interactions. The model efficiently reproduced the observed changes as a function of temperature. Finally, we discuss the role of temperature on the involved infection processes.

River flow is important in controlling phytoplankton distribution in estuaries. Data on the effect of river inflow on phytoplankton distribution patterns in temporarily open/closed estuaries is lacking. This study investigated the influence of river inflow on size-fractionated phytoplankton biomass (Chl a), community composition and environmental parameters measured monthly over three years in two temporarily open/closed estuaries in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. A once-off primary production study over an annual cycle was completed in the Van Stadens and Maitland estuaries. The study monitored physical, chemical and biological characteristics in both estuaries to examine the effects of changes in environmental factors and river inflow. Daily sampling of physico-chemical and biological variables from river to sea was carried out in the Van Stadens to investigate short-time scale effects of changes in environmental factors and river inflow on the phytoplankton biomass. Five and three stations in the main channel of the Van Stadens and Maitland estuaries respectively were sampled at 0.5 m below the water surface and 0.5 m above the sediment surface for biological and chemical variables and at the surface, 0.25 m and every 0.5 m thereafter for physical parameters. Five stations adjacent to the main channel along the estuary were monitored for groundwater macronutrient concentrations and five additional sites located within the upper catchment of the Van Stadens River were sampled on a quarterly basis over two years. Both estuaries were characterised by distinct hydrological conditions, an overwash, an open, a closed and a semi-closed mouth phase. Flooding in the Maitland and Van Stadens estuaries in 2001 and 2002 caused sediment scour, altered channel morphology and brought about breaching of the mouth. Flood driven mouth-breaching events occurred three and four times in each of the estuaries during the study. The mouth stayed open 20 – 25 percent and was closed 60 – 65 percent of the time. In the Van Stadens the closed overwash mouth condition occurred approximately 10 – 20 percent of the time while in the Maitland it occurred less with the semi-closed mouth condition occurring 10 – 20 percent of the time. Incidents related to mouth opening not associated with strong river floods occurred approximately 10 – 15 percent of the time, although in the Maitland a semi-closed mouth state persisted more frequently than in the Van Stadens Estuary. During flooding events salinity dropped to low levels (< 5 psu) but soon recovered to brackish conditions when river flow was reduced and marine water penetrated deep upstream. Reduction in river flow combined with marine sediment deposition resulted in the closure of the mouth. During closed mouth conditions strong onshore storm surges and spring high tides introduced marine water through overwash that kept salinity high. In both estuaries salinity showed a negative correlation with rainfall (R2 = 0.12), indicative of the strong influence of marine overwash that kept salinity high thus masking the influence of freshwater. High rainfall in the Van Stadens Estuary caused high levels of turbidity that reduced light penetration at depth. Light attenuation was positively correlated with the high rainfall (R 2 = 0.26) suggesting that increased turbidity was linked to rainfall induced discharge. In contrast, in the Maitland Estuary light attenuation did not show any correlation with increased rainfall possibly because of the reduced water depth and increased euphotic zone following the floods in 2002. High river inflow introduced macronutrients in both estuaries such that dissolved inorganic phosphates (DIP) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrations in the Van Stadens Estuary were strongly correlated with rainfall (R2 = 0.78 and 0.57 respectively). In the Maitland Estuary DIP and DIN concentrations remained significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to that in the Van Stadens suggesting that the Maitland catchment contributed greater nutrient input into the estuary and may be associated with farming activities. Phytoplankton chlorophyll a (Chl a) ranged from 0.8 – 13.9 μg L-1 in the Van Stadens and in the Maitland Estuary from 5.3 – 138 μg L-1 during the 3-year study. During the open mouth condition Chl a biomass and primary production ranged from 5.4 – 52.9 μg Chl a L-1 and 1.2 – 11.7 mg C m-2 d-1 in the Maitland and in the Van Stadens from 1.6 – 9.8 μg Chl a L-1 and 1.2 - 14 mg C m-2 d-1 respectively. Maximum annual primary production in the Maitland and Van Stadens estuaries was 8.8 and 5.1 g C m-2 y-1 respectively. When the mouth was open in the Van Stadens Estuary the microphytoplankton (> 20 μm) accounted for > 65 percent of the Chl a, whereas during closed mouth conditions they accounted for about 55 percent of the Chl a biomass. Chlorophytes became the dominant taxon in the dry summer months but were replaced by cryptophytes and dinoflagellates during the wet season. When nutrient concentrations were low during low flow conditions in the Van Stadens Estuary mixotrophic microphytoplankton became an important fraction of the water column together with phototrophic dinoflagellates and cryptophytes. In the Maitland large sized chlorophytes were the dominant taxa in late spring and summer seasons and made up more than 80 percent of the cell numbers. In the Maitland before the floods in 2002 cyanophytes were the dominant group in late spring contributing more than 75 percent in cell abundance. Data from the short-term study in the Van Stadens Estuary showed similarities and differences in the Chl a response to increased river inflow. High river inflow initially reduced Chl a biomass followed by a recovery period of a couple of days compared to a 8 – 10 week recovery period in studies monitored over seasonal and annual temporal scales. The responses may be dissimilar but help to illustrate that there are similar response patterns to environmental forcing necessary to support phytoplankton biomass at different temporal scales. This study has demonstrated that flooding events caused by strong river flow cause breaching of the mouth, a reduction in salinity and marked nutrient input. Although the causes of flooding can be similar in both estuaries the resultant effects are varied and can alter the ability of the estuary to retain water. This study was able to demonstrate that the supply of macronutrients from the catchment was strongly correlated with rainfall (R2 = 0.67) and that phytoplankton growth mainly depended on an allochthonous source of macronutrients although internal supplies could be critical at times in controlling microalgal biomass.

La compréhension des mécanismes de bioaccumulation des contaminants organiques persistants (POP) dans les réseaux trophiques marins est un enjeu majeur pour l'évaluation des risques environnementaux liés aux pressions anthropiques, notamment en zone côtière. Le plancton joue un rôle pivot dans le devenir des PCB dans l'environnement marin, notamment sur la base des observations de fortes concentrations de ces contaminants chez les zooplanctonophages. Les processus d'accumulation de ces contaminants au sein du plancton restent mal connus. Dans le cadre du projet COSTAS, les teneurs en PCB dans trois classes de tailles de plancton ont été étudiées en baie de Marseille entre sept. 2010 et oct. 2011. Les concentrations étaient fortes en comparaison à d'autres mesures réalisées dans le golfe du Lion. Du fait des apports variables en PCB, aucun «effet de dilution par la biomasse» n'a pu être détecté. Le niveau de contamination est fortement corrélé aux conditions météorologiques qui augmentent les concentrations en PCB dans l'eau. Le passé récent des organismes planctoniques, caractérisable par leur taille ou leur teneur en lipides, ne montre pas d'influence sur les teneurs observées. Le rapport C/N met en évidence l'importance de la contribution des détritus dans les niveaux de contaminations des différentes classes de taille. Une bioamplification modérée mais significative avec la position trophique est mise en évidence par les signatures de δ15N. La relation linéaire entre les BAF et log Kow indiquerait que le partage à l'équilibre avec la phase aqueuse suffit à contrôler les niveaux de PCB dans le plancton. / The understanding of bioaccumulation mechanisms of persistent organic pollutants (POP) in marine trophic networks is a major issue for scaling environmental risks linked to anthropogenic pressure, particularly in coastal areas. The plankton is assumed to play a pivotal role in the fate of PCBs in marine environment, as highlighted by the high concentrations found in planktivorous predators. However the accumulation processes of these contaminants in plankton are still poorly documented. The COSTAS project aimed at improving our knowledge on this issue. PCB levels in three plankton size-classes were studied in the bay of Marseilles (N-W Mediterranean Sea), between September 2010 and Octobre 2011. Measured PCB concentrations in Marseille bay plankton were high in comparison to those measured in other areas of the Gulf of Lion. No "dilution effect" was detected, due to the high variability in PCB inputs in the bay.receive, . The level of contamination in plankton appeared directly linked to weather conditions which increase the PCB concentration either through continental inputs or by sediment re-suspension events and hydrodynamic transport. The recent history of plankton organisms, derived from their size or their lipid content, had no influence on their PCB concentrations. The C/N ratio highlights the contribution of detritus in driving the contamination levels measured in the various size-classes. A moderate but significant bioamplification through planktonic trophic levels was highlighted using δ 15N signatures. The linear relationship between BAF and log Kow would indicate that the equilibrium with water phase is sufficient to control the PCB levels in the plankton.

Quarante pour cent des réservoirs du monde souffrent d'eutrophisation. Ce problème mondial augmente la biomasse de phytoplancton dans les réservoirs et perturbé leurs utilisations. Comprendre les mécanismes et les processus qui contrôlent la prolifération de cyanobactéries sont de grande préoccupation. Les modèles d'écosystèmes nous permettent de simuler, d'analyser et de comprendre les processus écologiques dans les lacs et les réservoirs. La communauté de phytoplancton et de l'application du modèle écologique sont mal documentées dans le Moyen-Orient. Karaoun réservoir, le plus grand plan d'eau au Liban, a été construit pour l'irrigation et la production hydroélectrique. Il ya un grand intérêt dans la qualité de ce réservoir d'eau car il sera utilisé pour alimenter la capitale Beyrouth avec de l'eau potable. Les objectifs de la thèse sont de concevoir et mettre en œuvre des campagnes de terrain pour suivre et comprendre la dynamique du phytoplancton et des cyanobactéries dans le lac de barrage de Karaoun, de modéliser le fonctionnement physique et biogéochimique de cette retenue. Des campagnes d'échantillonnage ont été effectuées deux fois par mois entre mai 2012 et Août 2013 pour évaluer l'état trophique et la diversité biologique et la dynamique de la communauté de phytoplancton en réponse aux changements des conditions environnementales. Ces mesures de campagne ont été ensuite utilisées pour calibrer et valider un modèle hydrodynamique-écologique unidimensionnel sur Karaoun réservoir. Nos résultats ont montré que : la retenue de Karaoun, fortement stratifiée thermiquement entre mai et août, est eutrophe, et présente une faible biodiversité. Seulement 30 espèces de phytoplancton ont été recensées en 2012-2013. La stratification thermique qui apparaît au printemps réduit la croissance des diatomées et entraîne leur remplacement par des chlorophycées. Les cyanobactéries dominent en été : Aphanizomenon ovalisporum lorsque la température de surface de l'eau est inférieure à 25 °C, Microcystis aeruginosa lorsqu'elle est supérieure à 25°C. Le dinoflagellé Ceratium hirundinella constitue l'espèce dominante en fin d'automne lorsque la colonne d'eau est mélangée, l'intensité lumineuse est faible et la température de l'eau d'environ 19 °C. Contrairement aux températures de surface élevées, supérieures à 26 °C, auxquelles prolifère A. ovalisporum dans les autres lacs, une prolifération d'A. ovalisporum survient en octobre 2012 dans la retenue de Karaoun, à une température de l'eau de 22 °C et alors que la stratification thermique est faible. La cylindrospermopsine (CYN), une cyanotoxines, a été détectée dans la retenue de Karaoun, même en l'absence d'A. ovalisporum, seule espèce qui la produit identifiée dans la retenue. La CYN atteint une concentration de 1,7 µg/L, supérieure à la valeur guide pour l'eau potable de 1 µg/L (Organisation Mondiale de la Santé). Une configuration simple de Dyresm-Caedym a permis de simuler avec succès la croissance et la succession des cyanobactéries A. ovalisporum et M. aeruginosa. Le modèle réalise de bonnes performances pour la simulation du niveau de l'eau du réservoir (RMSE <1 m pour une variation annuelle de 25 m), des profils de température de la colonne d'eau (RMSE <1 °C pour des variations annuelles comprises entre 13 et 28 °C) et de la biomasse des cyanobactéries (RMSE <48 µg/L équivalent chlorophylle-a, concentration entre 0 et 206 µg/L). A l'échelle locale, cette thèse est importante pour les autorités de gestion des eaux libanaises qui visent à utiliser ce réservoir pour production d'eau potable. Il a également permis de mieux comprendre les processus et les mécanismes qui contrôlent la prolifération de cyanobactéries. L'application de configurations de modèles simples avec procédés principaux pourrait être transposée sur d'autres réservoirs eutrophies / AbstractMany reservoirs throughout the world suffer from eutrophication. This worldwide problem increases phytoplankton biomass in reservoirs and impairs their uses. Understanding the mechanisms and processes that control cyanobacterial blooms are of great concern. Ecosystem models enable us to simulate, analyze and understand ecological processes in lakes and reservoirs. Except for Lake Kinneret, the phytoplankton community and ecological model application are poorly documented in the Middle East. Karaoun Reservoir, the largest water body in Lebanon, was built for irrigation and hydropower production. There is a great interest in the water quality of this reservoir as it will be used to supply the capital Beirut with drinking water. The objectives of this thesis are to: 1) design and implement a physico-chemical and reinforced biological monitoring in Karaoun reservoir, 2) understand the physico-chemical determinants of cyanobacterial blooms in Karaoun reservoir, and 3) calibrate a deterministic model that can be used to predict cyanobacteria biomass. Sampling campaigns were conducted semi-monthly between May 2012 and August 2013 to assess the trophic state and the biodiversity and dynamics of its phytoplankton community in response to changes in environmental conditions. These campaign measurements were then used to calibrate (summer and autumn 2012) and validate (spring and summer 2013) a one dimensional hydrodynamic-ecological model on Karaoun Reservoir. Our results show that : Karaoun Reservoir strongly stratifies between May and August was found eutrophic with low biodiversity, only 30 phytoplankton species in 2012-2013 study period. Thermal stratification established in spring reduced the growth of diatoms and resulted in their replacement by mobile green algae species during high nutrients availability and water temperatures lower than 22 °C. Water temperature higher than 25 °C favours cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa that displaces Aphanizomenon ovalisporum in summer. Dinoflagellate Ceratium hirundinella dominated in mixed conditions, at low light intensity in late autumn at 19 °C. Unlike the high temperatures, above 26 °C, which is associated with blooms of Aphanizomenon ovalisporum in Lakes Kinneret (Israel), Lisimachia and Trichonis (Greece) and Arcos Reservoir (Spain), Aphanizomenon ovalisporum in Karaoun Reservoir bloomed in October 2012 when water temperature was 22°C and the reservoir was weakly stratified. The field growth conditions of Aphanizomenon ovalisporum in this study revealed that it can bloom at subsurface water temperature 22 °C increasing the risk of its development and expansion in European lakes. Cylindrospermopsin, a fatal toxin, was detected in almost all samples even when Aphanizomenon ovalisporum was not detected. It reached a concentration of 1.7 µg/L, higher than the drinking water guideline value of 1 µg/L of the World Health Organization. The toxin vertical profiles suggest its possible degradation or sedimentation resulting in its disappearance from water column. A simple configuration of the one-dimensional hydrodynamic-ecological model Dyresm-Caedym successfully simulated the growth and succession of the cyanobacteria Aphanizomenon ovalisporum and Microcystis aeruginosa. The model showed a good performance in simulating the water level (RMSE < 1 m, annual variation of 25 m), water temperature profiles (RMSE < 1.1 °C, range 13-28 °C) and cyanobacteria biomass (RMSE < 57 µg L-1 equivalent chlorophyll a, range 0-206 µg L-1).On the local scale, this thesis provides important background data for the Lebanese water management authorities who aim to use this reservoir for drinking water production. It also increases the understanding of processes and mechanisms that control cyanobacterial blooms. The application of simple model configurations with few major processes can be transposed on other eutrophic lakes and reservoirs

Primary production was studied in Fram Sound, part of the Hell Gate-Cardigan Strait polynya, from June to August, 1982. Primary production rates, phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll α), and water transparency were measured and used in conjunction with modelled solar radiation values to numerically model primary production during this time. The major phytoplankton nutrients were also measured. Early season chlorophyll α concentrations were low, and the increased light availability due to reduced ice cover in this area did not appear to enhance early season production. Chlorophyll concentrations peaked twice; the first peak occured on 20 July and the second on 14 August. The mean primary production rate and phytoplankton biomass were 998 mg C.m⁻² .d⁻¹ and 72 mg chl.m⁻² . This production rate is higher than that measured in other High Arctic areas. Nitrogen, phosphorus and silica were essentially homogeneously distributed during the sampling period and these concentrations varied little from June to August except during 5 days in late August, when they decreased by half then returned to previous levels. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

O objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi estudar a produção primária na Represa de Bariri, que é a segunda do sistema do Médio Tietê. Para atingirmos o objetivo proposto, as coletas foram realizadas em duas estações de amostragem M1, na zona limnética, e M2, na zona litorânea, nos meses de fevereiro, abril, julho e setembro de 1998. A produtividade primária da comunidade fitoplanctônica foi determinada através do método do oxigênio dissolvido. Os valores da produtividade primária líquida da comunidade fitoplanctônica na zona limnética variaram de 122 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (abril) a 2093 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (julho), enquanto que na zona litorânea, variaram entre 157 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (abril) a 861 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (fevereiro). A respiração na comunidade na zona limnética variou entre 18 a 376 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (fevereiro) e na zona litorânea, variou de 0 (abril) a 211 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (fevereiro). A menor produtividade primária, observada em abril, coincidiu com uma menor biomassa. Provavelmente, o fósforo foi o principal fator limitante da produtividade primária nos outros meses de estudos. A proliferação da S estrategista Microcystis spp em fevereiro, nas zonas limnética e litorânea e julho na zona limnética, foi associada à maior estabilidade da coluna d\'água desses períodos. Nas coletas de julho nas zonas litorâneas, abril e setembro, nas zonas limnética e litorânea, houve maior participação de espécies R e C estrategistas, como Rhodomonas lacustris, Auacoseira granulatagranulata, Chlamydomonas spp, Cryptomonas brasiliensis, Cryptomonas tetrapyrenoidosa, Anabaena spiroides e Anabaena circinalis. / Temporal and spacial variations of phytoplankton primary production in Bariri Reservoir (22º06\'S and 48º45\'W, São Paulo State, Brazil) were evaluated by in situ observations in two different areas: one in the limnetic zone (M1) and other in the littoral zone (M2) in February, April, July and September 1998. The phytoplankton primary productivity was determined by the dissolved oxigen method. The values of net primary productivity of the phytoplankton community in M1 varied from 122 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (April) to 2093 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (July), and M2, varied from 157 (April) to 861 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (February). The community respiration M1, varied from 18 (April) to 376 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (February) and M2, varied from zero (April) to 211 mgO2.m-2.h-1 (February).The lowest primary productivity, obtained in April, coincided with the lowest biomass. Probably, phosphorus was the main limitation of the primary productivity on the others study months. The bloom of Microcystis spp (S strategist) in February M1 and M2 and July M1 was related to water column more stable in these periods. In July M1, April M1 and M2 and September M1 and M2, the R and C strategists predominated, such as Rhodomonas lacustri, Aulacoseira granulata granulata, Chlamydomonas spp, Cryptomonas brasiliensis, Cryptomonas tetrapyrenoidosa, Anabaena spiroides and Anabaena circinalis.