In the first part of this thesis the metabolism of the phytotoxins destruxin B and sirodesmin PL in crucifers and non-crucifers was studied using HPLC-ESI-MSn. Destruxin B and sirodesmin PL are phytotoxins produced by the phytopathogenic fungi Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. (causative agent of blackspot disease) and Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm) Ces. et de Not.[asexual stage Phoma lingam (Tode ex Fr) Desm.] (causative agent of blackleg disease). Five cruciferous species were used in this study: Arabidopsis thaliana L., Brassica rapa L., B. napus L., Thellungiella salsuginea Pallas and Erucastrum gallicum O.E. Schulz. In addition, the cereals Avena sativa L. and Triticum aestivum L. were studied similarly. Destruxin B was metabolized by all crucifers to hydroxydestruxin B, a transformation similar to previously reported reactions in other crucifers. In addition, destruxin B elicited production of phytoalexins in A. thaliana, T. salsuginea and E. gallicum, while no phytoalexins were detected in case of B. rapa and B. napus. In cereals destruxin B was transformed differently. Several metabolites were detected and identified by HPLC-ESI-MSn analyses: hydroxydestruxin B, two isomers of dehydrodestruxin B and desmethyldestruxin B. On the other hand, no metabolites related to transformation of sirodesmin PL were detected in crucifers; however, in cereals sirodesmin PL was transformed to deacetylsirodesmin PL. In all crucifers sirodesmin PL was found to be a stronger elicitor of phytoalexin production than destruxin B. In the second part of this thesis, mycelia from different pathogenic fungi were screened for indolyl-3-acetaldoxime dehydratase. L. maculans isolate Laird 2 was chosen for isolation, characterization and substrate specificity of aldoxime dehydratase, as it showed the highest specific activity among the tested pathogens. The enzyme was partially purified using three chromatographic steps. It showed Michaelis–Menten kinetics and an apparent molecular mass of about 40 kDa. Based on its substrate specificity, the enzyme appears to be an indolyl-3-acetaldoxime dehydratase

As actinobactérias são uma reconhecida fonte de metabólitos secundários bioativos com grande diversidade estrutural e funcional. Dentre elas, o gênero Streptomyces é sem dúvida o mais explorado, correspondendo a cerca de 75% dos metabólitos secundários estudados, e por dois terços dos antibióticos conhecidos. Dessa forma, ainda é crescente a necessidade de novos herbicidas com perfil de baixa toxicidade ambiental e novos mecanismos de ação, para a substituição de produtos que são utilizados extensivamente há anos. Grandes avanços tecnológicos têm sido alcançados em termos de instrumentação analítica nas últimas décadas, tornando a espectrometria de massas a técnica mais eficiente e robusta na identificação de metabólitos secundários, principalmente quando acoplada a técnicas cromatográficas de ultra eficiência (UHPLC-MS). Nessa dissertação foi explorada a diversidade metabólica de actinobactérias isoladas do bioma Caatinga para a identificação de metabólitos secundários com atividade fitotóxica. Foram produzidos 166 extratos brutos de actinobactérias, das quais, 27 apresentaram algum nível de atividade fitotóxica contra Lemna minor. Devido pronunciada bioatividade (MIC = 6,25 ?g) o extrato bruto da actinobactéria, CAAT 7-52, foi selecionado para desreplicação, caracterização e fracionamento guiado por bioensaios, e, ao mesmo tempo, um estudo taxonômico foi realizado para determinar o posicionamento filogenético do novo isolado. A análise da sequência do gene 16S rRNA suportou a classificação da linhagem no gênero Streptomyces e mostrou que CAAT 7-52 formou uma linha filética distinta junto com a linhagem tipo de Streptomyces actinomycinicus, com um valor de identidade da sequência de 99,0%. No extrato bruto de CAAT 7-52 foi identificada a Albociclina como responsável pela atividade fitotóxica (MIC = 3,12 ?g), assim como alguns compostos análogos. O monitoramento da massa micelial seca e produção de Albociclina mostrou uma maior produção do composto ativo aos 21 dias de crescimento. Esse extrato foi submetido a ensaios de inibição de germinação, onde apresentou atividade contra sementes de buva (Conyza canadensis) (MIC = 12,5 ?g), alface (Lactuca sativa) e rúcula (Eruca sativa). Variações no meio de cultivo mostraram uma produção seletiva de Albociclina nos meios de cultivo PMB e Czapeck-GL. Ensaios de fitotoxicidade contra Lemna minor, utilizando o fermentado do meio PMB sem extração com solventes orgânicos, mostrou atividade em uma diluição de 20%. Portanto, foi possível demostrar através desse estudo o grande potencial das actinobactérias na produção de metabólitos secundários bioativos e da espectrometria de massas como técnica analítica na identificação dos compostos ativos. / Actinobacterias are a well know source of bioactive secondary metabolites with great structural and functional diversity. Among them, the Streptomyces genus is certainly the most explored, corresponding to about 75% of studied secondary metabolites, and for two thirds of known antibiotics. Thus, there is still a growing need for new herbicides with low environmental toxicity e new modes of action, for the replacement of products that have been broadly used for years. Great technological progress has been achieved in analytical instrumentation in the last few decades, making mass spectrometry the most efficient and robust technique to identify secondary metabolites, mainly when accoupled to ultra-performance chromatographic techniques (UHPLC-MS). In this essay, was explored the metabolic diversity of the actinobacterias isolated from the Caatinga biome to identification of secondary metabolites with phytotoxic activity. Were produced 166 crude extracts from actinobacterias, from this, 27 showed some phytotoxic activity against Lemna minor. Due to noticeable bioactivity (MIC = 6,25 ?g) the crude extract from actinobacteria CAAT 7-52, was selected to dereplication, characterization and bioassay guided fractionation, and, at the same time, a taxonomic study was carried out to determinate the phylogenetic location of the new isolated. The analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequence supported the lineage classification on the genus Streptomyces and established that CAAT 7-52 assembled a distinct phyletic line together with the lineage type of Streptomyces actinomycinicus, with an identity sequence value of 99,0%. In the crude extract CAAT 7-52, Albocycline was identified as the responsible for the phytotoxic activity (MIC = 3,12 ?g), so as some analogous compounds. The mycelial dry mass and Albocycline production monitoring revealed a major production of the active compound at 21 days of growth. This extract was subjected to germination inhibition assays, where revealed activity against horseweed (Conyza canadensis) (MIC = 12,5 ?g), lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and arugula (Eruca sativa) seeds. Variations in the culture media showed a selective production of Albocycline in the PMB and Czapeck-GL culture media. Phytotoxicity assays against Lemna minor, applying the fermented PMB media without organic solvents extractions, revealed activity with a 20% dilution. Therefore, through this study was able to demonstrate the great potential of the actinobacterias in the production of bioactive secondary metabolites and the mass spectrometry as analytical technique to identification of the active compounds.

In the past two decades a new barley threat has emerged as the disease Ramularia leaf spot (RLS) became more prevalent in temperate regions worldwide. This disease, first identified in the late 19th century, is caused by the filamentous fungus Ramularia collo-cygni (Rcc) and can cause substantial yield losses as well as reduce grain quality. RLS typically occurs late in the growing season and characteristic disease symptoms are usually seen after the crop has flowered. Expression of RLS lesions is thought to be associated with the action of fungal secondary metabolism products. The one group of secondary metabolites (SMs) characterised to date from Rcc, the anthraquinone toxins rubellins, are known to cause necrosis to plant tissues in a non-host specific manner. Therefore, it appears that fungal secondary metabolism might be a key component in understanding the interaction between Rcc and its host. In this study, more than 23 core genes involved in the biosynthesis of SMs belonging to the polyketide and non-ribosomal peptide pathways were identified in the genome of Rcc. Putative clusters containing genes with a predicted function relating to secondary metabolism were identified by in silico genome walking in the genetic loci adjacent to Rcc SM core genes. Two gene clusters containing no SM core gene were also identified. Five of the putative SM clusters exhibited similarity to the known fungal SM biochemical pathways involved in gliotoxin, monodictyphenone, ferricrocin, betaenone and chaetoglobosins biosynthesis. Several gene clusters exhibited similarity to SM clusters from fungal species where the SM pathway is uncharacterised. Changes in transcript abundance of selected SM core genes during RLS development in artificially inoculated barley seedlings were tested. Transcript levels were found to be the highest at an early stage of disease development, typically during the asymptomatic and early lesions formation stages and declined over time, suggesting that the associated SMs in Rcc, may not necessarily be involved in symptoms appearance. The in planta mode of action of the non-host specific photoactivated toxin rubellin D was studied in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Rubellin-induced cell death appeared phenotypically reminiscent of programmed cell death (PCD). Full expression of rubellin D-induced cell death required the host salicylic acid (SA) pathway and the host proteasome supporting the PCD response to this fungal SM. However, a clear correlation between toxin sensitivity and disease susceptibility could not be found, suggesting a potential alternative role for rubellin in disease symptom development.

The weeds can result in large losses in agricultural production and the main method of control is the use of chemical herbicides. Chemical herbicides are effective and great practicality, however bring direct and indirect consequences that cause different impacts on the environment. An important alternative to reduce the excessive use of chemical herbicides would be the use of biological control, including the use of phytotoxins as organic herbicides. A significant barrier in the production of organic products is the development of an economically viable process. The objectives of this study were to have a biological herbicide from the fungus Phoma sp. phytotoxin through a submerged fermentation,to optimize the formulations of the phytotoxin adjuvants together with the aid of various mixers and evaluate the herbicidal activity of the phytotoxin formulations on the control bioindicators. In submerged fermentation was used a bioreactor. The fermentation time was 5 days, other parameters used were rotation of 50 rpm, 15% dissolved oxygen, of 6.0 pH and aeration ranging from 1.0 to 7.0 L / min.Ultrasound showed the best results, in general, for the physicochemical properties studied, for example the formulations has remained stable with different concentrations together phytotoxin of Silwet L-77 and Aporte Plus.The evaluation of the possible action herbicide was divided in primary screening and secondary screening, with 17 formulations of the Central Composed Delineation Rotaticional (CCRD) made by ultrasound and turrax stirrer. At primary screening was performed by germination tests on seeds of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). The germination results obtained for control on cucumber seeds ranged from 57.0% to 100%, as in the 45.1% to 100% sorghum. Tests showed that 100% germination control for cucumber and sorghum, were the tests 10, 12, 14 and the central points. Secondary Screening was with the application of the formulations on four bio-indicator species have emerged more than 15 days, where dicotyledon were the lettuce (Lactuca sativa L) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus.), And Monocotyledon (Allium cepa L. - Alliaceae) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), determined the possible action herbicide in post-emergence. The results of 17 tests CCRD were similar to the experiment in preemergence tests having 10, 12, 14 and the midpoints of the top herbicidal effects, control of 100%. / As plantas daninhas podem acarretar grandes prejuízos na produção agrícola e o principal método de controle é o uso de herbicidas químicos. Os herbicidas químicos são eficientes e de grande praticidade, porem trazem consequências diretas e indiretas que causam diversos impactos sobre o meio ambiente. Uma alternativa importante para diminuir o uso abusivo de herbicidas químicos seria a utilização do controle biológico, entre eles, o uso das fitotoxinas como herbicidas biológicos. Uma barreira significativa na produção dos produtos biológicos, como as fitotoxinas, é o desenvolvimento de um processo economicamente viável, logo, os objetivos deste trabalho foram produzir um herbicida biológico da fitotoxina do fungo Phoma sp. por fermentação submersa através de um biorreator, otimizar as formulações da fitotoxina em conjunto de adjuvantes com ajuda de diferentes misturadores e avaliar a atividade herbicida das formulações de fitotoxina no controle de plantas bioindicadoras. Na fermentação submersa foi utilizado um biorreator, com um tempo de fermentação de 5 dias, rotação de 50 rpm, 15% de oxigênio dissolvido, pH de 6,0 e malha de aeração variando de 1,0 ate 7,0 L/min. O ultrassom apresentou os melhores resultados, num geral, para as propriedades físico químicas estudadas, onde por exemplo manteve a estabilidade das formulações com as diferentes concentrações de fitotoxina em conjunto do Silwet L-77 e Aporte Plus. A avaliação de o possível poder herbicida foi dividida em Screening primário e Screening secundário, com as 17 formulações do Delineamento Composto Central Rotaticional (DCCR) formuladas por ultrassom e agitador turrax. O Screening primário foi realizado atráves de testes de germinações com sementes de pepino (Cucumis sativus) e sorgo (Sorghum bicolor). Os resultados obtidos para o controle de germinação nas sementes de pepino variaram de 57,0% até 100%, já no sorgo de 45,1% até 100%. Os ensaios que apresentaram controle de germinação de 100% para pepino e sorgo, foram os ensaios 10, 12, 14 e os pontos centrais. O Screening secundário foi com a aplicação das formulações sobre quatro espécies bioindicadoras já emergidas a mais de 15 dias, onde as dicotiledôneas foram à alface (Lactuca sativa L) e pepino (Cucumis sativus.), e as monocotiledôneas a cebola (Allium cepa L. - Alliaceae) e sorgo (Sorghum bicolor), determinaram o possível poder herbicida em pós emergência. Os resultados dos 17 ensaios DCCR foram semelhantes ao experimento em préemergência, apresentando os ensaios 10, 12, 14 e os pontos centrais os melhores efeitos herbicidas, controle de 100%.

La brûlure foliaire causée par Alternaria dauci est la maladie foliaire la plus dommageable pour les cultures de carottes, entravant la récolte mécanique. Seuls des cultivars partiellement résistants sont connus et commercialisés, mais leurs niveaux de résistance sont insuffisants. Les mécanismes de la résistance quantitative des plantes aux agents pathogènes sont mal caractérisés. Nous avons choisi d'étudier ces mécanismes dans l'interaction A. dauci-carotte. Auparavant, plusieurs résultats expérimentaux convergents ont montré que la résistance aux toxines fongiques entre en jeu dans cette interaction. Les tests de toxicité effectués avec des suspensions cellulaires de carotte ont révélé une corrélation entre la résistance des carottes à A.dauci et la résistance des cellules de carotte aux exsudats du champignon. Ces résultats nous ont incités à étudier les toxines impliquées dans le pouvoir pathogène d'A. dauci et afin de pouvoir étudier la réponse de la plante à celles –ci. En utilisant les profils HPLC de la phase organique d'exsudats de différentes souches de champignons, nous avons découvert une corrélation entre la production de toxines et l’agressivité de ces souches suggérant que la production de toxines joue un rôle majeur dans l’interaction A. dauci-carotte. Nous avons effectué l'extraction, la purification et la caractérisation de l'une des molécules candidates que nous avons nommé aldaulactone. Nous avons démontré sa toxicité grâce à un nouveau protocole de quantification de cellules mortes et vivantes. Un transcriptome d’A. dauci et une étude de l’expression des gènes en fonction de la production d’aldaulactone ont été utilisées pour étudier sa voie de biosynthèse. / Alternaria leaf blight, caused by the necrotrophic fungus Alternaria dauci, is the most damaging foliar disease of carrots, especially because it hampers leaf-pull harvesting. Only partially – and insufficiently – resistant cultivars exist. In general, partial resistance mechanisms are poorly understood, so we chose to study them in this interaction. Previous results obtained in the lab highlighted a correlation between plant resistance to the fungus and plant cell resistance toward fungal toxins. It was also shown using carrot cell suspensions that fungal exudates’ toxicity was only present in the organic phase. These results led us to better characterize the toxins produced by A. dauci, in order to get a deeper understanding of carrot cell resistance mechanisms toward those toxins. HPLC analysis of the exudates from different fungal strain uncovered a correlation between toxin production and the aggressiveness of the fungal strains, suggesting that toxin production is an important component of said aggressiveness. We extracted, purified and characterize one of these candidates, and named it aldaulactone. Using a new image analysis protocol, we demonstrated the toxicity of Aldaulactone on carrot cell suspensions. Transcriptomic data from Alternaria dauci were used to explore the biosynthesis pathway of Aldaulactone. Candidate Genes were selected and their level of expression compared with aldaulactone production in various A. dauci cultures.

Abrin is a potent toxin obtained from the seeds of Abrus precatorius. It is a heterodimeric glycoprotein consisting of an A and a B subunit linked together by a disulfide bond. The toxicity of the protein comes from the A subunit harboring RNA-N-glycosidase activity which cleaves the glycosidic bond between the ribose sugar and the adenine at position 4324 in 28S rRNA. The depurination of a specific adenine residue at position 4324 results in loss of conformation of the 28S rRNA at the α sarcin/ricin loop to which elongation factor-2 (EF-2) binds, during the transloction step of translation, leading to inhibition of protein synthesis. The B subunit of abrin is a galactose specific lectin. The lectin activity enables the toxin to gain entry inside cells on binding to receptors with terminal galactose. After entering cells, a few molecules of abrin reach the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via the retrograde transport, where the disulfide bond between the A and the B subunits gets cleaved. Then the A chain escapes into the cytosol where it binds to its target, the α-sarcin loop of the 28S ribosomal RNA and inhibits protein synthesis. Apart from inhibition of protein synthesis, exposure of cells to abrin leads to the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) resulting in the activation of caspases and finally apoptosis. However, whether apoptosis is dependent on the inhibition of protein synthesis has not been elucidated. The major objectives of this study are therefore to delineate the signaling pathways involved in abrin-induced apoptosis. The thesis is divided into 4 Chapters: Chapter 1. provides a overview of the general properties of RIPs, with a brief history, classification, trafficking and biological activities of the toxins. This chapter also discusses their potential use in bio-warfare and the treatments available for management of toxicity. Chapter 2 and 3 discuss the results obtained on studies aimed at gaining insights into the signaling pathways involved in abrin-induced apoptosis. Chapter 4 focuses on the research carried out to understand the mechanisms of neutralization of abrin by the mAb D6F10. Towards the first objective, chapter 2 elucidates the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signaling in abrin-induced apoptosis using the human T-cell line, Jurkat as a model system. It could be concluded that the inhibition of protein synthesis by the catalytic A subunit of abrin could result in accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER leading to ER stress which triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway. The ER resident trans-membrane sensors IRE1 (Inositol-requiring enzyme 1), PERK (PKR-like ER kinase) and ATF6 (Activating transcription factor 6) are the important players of UPR in mammalian cells. These sensors inhibit translation and increase the levels of chaperones to restore protein homeostasis. However, if the ER stress is prolonged, apoptotic pathways get activated to remove severely damaged cells in which protein folding defects cannot be resolved. Recent studies have shown that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induces apoptosis by activating initiater caspases such as caspase-2 and -8 which eventually trigger mitochondrial membrane potential loss and activation of downstream effector capases-9 and -3. Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2α and upregulation of CHOP [CAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP) homologous protein], important players involved in ER stress signaling by abrin, suggested activation of ER stress in the cells. ER stress is also known to induce apoptosis via stress kinases such as p38 MAPK and JNK. Activation of both the pathways was observed upon abrin treatment and found to be upstream of the activation of caspases. However, abrin-induced apoptosis was found be dependent on p38 MAPK but not JNK. We also observed that abrin induced activation of caspase-2 and caspase-8 and triggered Bid cleavage leading to mitochondrial membrane potential loss and thus connecting the signaling events from ER stress to mitochondrial death machinery. Few toxins belonging to the family of ribosome inactivating proteins such as Shiga toxin have been observed to induce DNA damage in human endothelial cells and activate p53/ATM-dependent signaling pathway in mammalian cells. To further investigate the role of abrin on activation of DNA damage signaling pathway, we analysed the phosphorylation of H2AX and ATM, which are markers for double strand DNA breaks. We observed phosphorylation of H2AX and ATM upon abrin treatment but not when cells were pretreated with the broad spectrum pan caspase inhibitor. This study suggested that the DNA damage observed was an indirect effect of caspase-activated DNase. We concluded from the studies in chapter 2 that inhibition of protein synthesis by abrin can trigger endoplasmic reticulum stress leading to mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Further studies were conducted to understand the dependence of ER stress on inhibition of protein synthesis and are presented in chapter 3. For this study, we have used an active site mutant of abrin A chain (R167L) which exhibits lower protein synthesis inhibitory activity than the wild type abrin A chain. Recombinant wild type and mutant abrin A chains were expressed in E.coli and purified. Since, abrin A chain requires the B chain for internalization into cells, both wild type and mutant abrin A chains were conjugated to native ricin B chain to generate a hybrid toxin. Next, we have compared the toxic effects of the two conjugates in cells. The rate of inhibition of protein synthesis mediated by the mutant ricin B-rABRA (R167L) conjugate was slower than that of the wild type ricin B-rABRA conjugate but it could trigger ER stress leading to mitochondrial mediated apoptosis in cells though delayed, suggesting that inhibition of protein synthesis is the major factor contributing to abrin-mediated apoptosis. Abrin is extremely lethal and considered as a potential agent for use in biological warfare. Currently, there are no antidotes or effective therapies available for abrin poisoning. Antibody based antitoxins function by either preventing toxin binding to cell surface receptors or by translocation. Antibodies against the B chain of RIPs function by inhibiting the binding of B chain of the toxin to cells, whereas the exact mechanism by which antibodies against A chain function is still not clear. The only known neutralizing monoclonal antibody against abrin A chain, namely, D6F10, was generated in our laboratory and was shown to rescue cells and mice from abrin intoxication. Earlier experiments with confocal microscopy suggested that mAb D6F10 could internalize in HeLa cells along with abrin, suggesting that the antibody can function intracellularly. Chapter 4 discusses the work carried out to delineate the mechanism of intracellular neutralization of abrin by the mAb D6F10. We observed significant reduction in binding and delay in abrin internalization in the presence of the neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) D6F10. Considering that the majority of the abrin after internalization is removed by lysosomal degradation, we studied the fate of abrin in the presence of mAb D6F10. Confocal images did not show any difference in the distribution of abrin in the lysosomes in the absence or presence of antibody. However, the antibody remained persistently colocalized with abrin in the cells, suggesting that the antibody might inhibit enzymatic activity of abrin at its cellular site of action.