The effects of varying levels of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) on the cold maceration process was investigated with Pinot noir (Vitis vinifera L.) wine. The effects of these varying levels on the wines composition and colour parameters were examined. Cold maceration is a technique whereby grapes are crushed and placed at low temperatures (4 - lO°C) in the presence 50 - 150 mgL⁻¹ SO₂. This process is believed to provide a medium for the extraction of water soluble phenolic compounds, rather than the alcoholic extraction employed in normal fermentations. The extraction of these phenolic compounds was monitored from the juice through to six months of bottle age. The changes were measured using both Spectrophotometric and High Performance Liquid Chromatographic (HPLC) procedures. Cold maceration wines were found to be not significantly different to the control wine in all compositional parameters other than titrateable acidity which was found to be less than the control for all the cold maceration wines. The unsulphured cold maceration wine was not significantly different from the control wine in any of the spectral measurements except natural degree of ionisation, in which it was higher, and total phenolics, in which it was lower. These results indicate that the cold maceration process alone does not alter the extraction of phenolic compounds. The HPLC analysis of the wine confirmed the spectral results indicating that their were no significant differences in the levels of extraction of anthocyanins. The sulphured cold maceration wines were significantly greater than the control in visible colour, colour density, total anthocyanins, natural degree of ionisation, ionised anthocyanins and total phenolics. These results followed similar patterns with wine ageing, at six months these wines were still significantly greater in all the measurements apart from natural degree of ionisation. The results for the sulphured cold maceration wines indicates that SO₂ is acting as a solvent for the extraction of phenolic compounds including anthocyanins. The 50 mgL⁻¹ SO₂ cold maceration wine had similar colour and phenolic content to the 100 mgL⁻¹ SO₂ cold maceration wine at bottling, at six months the 50 mgL⁻¹ SO₂ cold maceration wine still retained a similar colour to the 100 mgL⁻¹ SO₂ cold maceration wine but had vastly reduced anthocyanin content. This indicates that for the grapes utilised in this study the most appropriate level of addition at cold maceration would be 50 mgL⁻¹ of SO₂. With grapes of differing phenolic content the level of addition required will vary.

Two pre-fermentation treatments were investigated in Pinot noir (Vitis vinifera L.) wines. The effects of cold maceration and carbonic maceration on the wines' composition, colour parameters and sensory properties were examined. Cold maceration is a winemaking technique used to increase non-alcoholic extraction in Pinot noir winemaking prior to fermentation. It involves holding crushed grapes with approximately 100-150 mg l⁻¹ SO₂ at low temperatures and is thought to increase the colour, aroma and flavour of the resulting wines. Carbonic maceration uses whole bunches that have undergone anaerobic metabolism to produce characteristically fruity and spicy wines. Pre-fermentation cold maceration produces wines that are higher in titratable acidity and monomeric anthocyanin content, but lower in colour density, hue and polymeric pigments. Reducing the maceration temperature below 10°C has little effect. Carbonic maceration produces wines that are lower in titratable acidity, monomeric anthocyanin content, and colour density but are higher in colour hue and amount of polymeric pigments. Quantitative descriptive analysis was used to define the effects of these pre-fermentation maceration treatments on the sensory characteristics of the resulting wine. Trained panel members found that there were no discernable sensory differences in the compositional parameters despite measurable chemical differences. Investigation into the aroma and flavour characteristics of the wines found that carbonic maceration produces wines that were lower in berry aroma and higher in acetate or ester-type aromas than the control wines. These wines were considered to have specific raspberry, floral, sugar, cherry and chemical aromas. This chemical note was also observed in the flavour of the carbonic maceration wines. The temperature of the cold maceration process has no major effect on the aroma and flavour of the resulting wines. However, the 10°C maceration was higher in woody/tobacco aroma than the 4°C maceration, and the 10°C treatment was also higher in bitter flavour than all the other treatments. Cold maceration wines were found to have specific mixed berry, dried fruit and sweet-oxidised aroma characters, together with a blackberry flavour note.

A trial established in 2003 at Upper Moutere in Nelson, New Zealand, was used to evaluate the effect of mussel shells as reflective mulch on Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot noir vine performance and fruit and wine quality. Shell mulch had several effects on the environment and vine growth as well as grape and wine composition in the 2006/2007 season. Soil under mulch was cooler compared to un-mulched control, but buffered the extremes in temperatures. Fruiting zone temperature over shells was slightly higher during the day and cooler at night, showing no effect on mean hourly temperature. Shell mulch reflected greater amounts of UV-A, UV-B and PAR radiation into the fruiting zone. Shell reduced weed growth compared to control. Leaf petiole and blade samples showed higher amounts of calcium compared to control. Leaf SPAD values were higher in the shell treatment during veraison, previous and postharvest, but lower post budburst. While date of budburst was not affected by treatments, dates of flowering and veraison appeared to be slightly advanced over shells. Fruit set was similar between treatments and was considered poorer in shell bunches due to a larger population of seedless berries. Vine growth was not affected in terms of the number of nodes laid at pruning, flower cluster and shoot number pre shoot thinning, early shoot growth and lateral shoots development. Vigour was not increased by shells as demonstrated by pruning weights, canopy density and trunk circumferences being similar, though internode lengths in shell shoots were greater in 2007 and lower in 2006. Berry weights, bunch weights and vine yields were lower in shell than control, though greater berry numbers were recorded. There were slight differences between treatments in fruit and wine composition. Grape pH only varied in the middle of the sampling time, being higher the 2nd week and lower the 3rd week in shell grapes and TA was greater at harvest time. However, °Brix was only higher in shell grapes in the middle of the sampling period, being similar to control at veraison and harvest. Peduncle lignification was delayed at veraison as well as at harvest time. Shell must after crushing was greater in Brix but similar to control in pH and TA. Similarly, shell wines pre bottling showed higher alcohol and no differences for pH and TA. HPLC-DAD analyses of commercial-scale and microvin wines showed consistent differences of the individual flavonoid composition. Shell microvin wines were greater than control in quercetin and resveratrol. However, commercial shell wines were lower in epicatechin, gallic acid, resveratrol, and catechin than control. Leaf phenolic composition was also different between treatments. However, further analyses by HPLC-MS in wines as well as in leaves are necessary to identify individual compounds. Total anthocyanins and total phenolics were no different between treatments. Sensory analyses of microvin and commercial shell wines exhibited consistently lower levels of green and unripe tannins, and greater smoothness and complexity as well. Further analysis by GC-MS and HPLC-MS is warranted. Shell mulch improved sensory characteristics of the resulting wines.

Submitted by Rodrigo Martins Cruz (rodrigo.cruz@ufvjm.edu.br) on 2015-02-27T13:30:30Z No. of bitstreams: 5 11.pdf: 692915 bytes, checksum: 5a72c30d2db22b8d986fa5ff6134c4b8 (MD5) license_url: 49 bytes, checksum: fd26723f8d7edacdb29e3f03465c3b03 (MD5) license_text: 20904 bytes, checksum: e09bf99e64678e4285abf3ef3e05412d (MD5) license_rdf: 23422 bytes, checksum: b145eda3d84bdc4f56b389c0ab98d368 (MD5) license.txt: 2109 bytes, checksum: aa477231e840f304454a16eb85a9235f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Rodrigo Martins Cruz (rodrigo.cruz@ufvjm.edu.br) on 2015-02-27T14:36:27Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 5 11.pdf: 692915 bytes, checksum: 5a72c30d2db22b8d986fa5ff6134c4b8 (MD5) license_url: 49 bytes, checksum: fd26723f8d7edacdb29e3f03465c3b03 (MD5) license_text: 20904 bytes, checksum: e09bf99e64678e4285abf3ef3e05412d (MD5) license_rdf: 23422 bytes, checksum: b145eda3d84bdc4f56b389c0ab98d368 (MD5) license.txt: 2109 bytes, checksum: aa477231e840f304454a16eb85a9235f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-02-27T14:36:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 5 11.pdf: 692915 bytes, checksum: 5a72c30d2db22b8d986fa5ff6134c4b8 (MD5) license_url: 49 bytes, checksum: fd26723f8d7edacdb29e3f03465c3b03 (MD5) license_text: 20904 bytes, checksum: e09bf99e64678e4285abf3ef3e05412d (MD5) license_rdf: 23422 bytes, checksum: b145eda3d84bdc4f56b389c0ab98d368 (MD5) license.txt: 2109 bytes, checksum: aa477231e840f304454a16eb85a9235f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Funda??o de Amparo ? Pesquisa do estado de Minas Gerais (Funda??o de Amparo ? Pesquisa do estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) / O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da cianamida hidrogenada e a fenologia de produ??o em cultivares Pinot Meunier e Pinot Noir no munic?pio de Diamantina/MG. Os experimentos foram conduzidos em propriedade comercial localizada em Diamantina/MG. O vinhedo foi instalado em 2005 com as cultivares Pinot Meunier e Pinot Noir, enxertadas sobre o porta-enxerto 1103 Pausen, implantado com espa?amento de 1 m entre plantas x 2,5 m entre fileiras. As plantas foram conduzidas com 2 hastes em esquema de espaldeira vertical e tr?s fios de arame. A poda foi realizada em 4 de setembro de 2008, deixando uma haste curta com duas gemas por espor?o. Para a caracteriza??o fenol?gica foram feitas observa??es visuais a cada dois dias da poda at? a colheita. As demandas t?rmicas foram calculadas a partir de temperaturas observadas na Esta??o Meteorol?gica de Diamantina/MG. Para as curvas de matura??o foi utilizado suco para avalia??o qu?mica dos teores de s?lidos sol?veis totais (SST), acidez total titul?vel (ATT) e rela??o SST/ATT. Para avaliar o efeito da aplica??o de cianamida hidrogenada na brota??o, in?cio de matura??o e nas caracter?sticas f?sico-qu?micas das cultivares Pinot Meunier e Pinot Noir cultivadas em Diamantina/MG, foram realizadas avalia??es das plantas a cada dois dias, quando foram aferidas as porcentagens de brota??o e porcentagens de bagas em in?cio de matura??o. Na colheita foi realizada a contagem do n?mero de cachos por planta e foram amostradas 15 bagas por parcela para as seguintes avalia??es f?sico-qu?micas das bagas: umidade, massa, di?metros longitudinal (DL) e transversal (DT), rela??o DL/DT, teor de s?lidos sol?veis totais (SST), acidez total titul?vel (ATT), rela??o STT/ATT, a??cares redutores, antocianinas, flavon?ides, compostos fen?licos e pH. Os resultados obtidos demonstram dura??o do per?odo fenol?gico para as cultivares Pinot Meunier e Pinot Noir de 145 e 155 dias, respectivamente, para a produ??o da safra de ver?o em Diamantina/MG, podendo considerar a variedade Pinot Meunier de ciclo precoce. A exig?ncia t?rmica necess?ria para a produ??o da Pinot Meunier da poda ? colheita foi de 1340,67 GD e da Pinot Noir de 1446,95 GD. A cultivar Pinot Noir apresentou maior teor de s?lidos sol?veis totais e acidez, sendo a maior rela??o SST/ATT da Pinot Meunier nas condi??es de Diamantina/MG. Foram evidenciados para o efeito da aplica??o da cianamida hidrogenada a antecipa??o do in?cio da matura??o em 17 dias para a Pinot Meunier, a maior porcentagem de cachos em in?cio de matura??o em 45,84% e 28,23% para ?Pinot Meunier? e ?Pinot Noir?, respectivamente, e o incremento de algumas caracter?sticas f?sico-qu?micas avaliadas, como acidez total titul?vel, rela??o SST/ATT, flavon?ides e taninos para a cultivar Pinot Meunier e s?lidos sol?veis totais, a??cares redutores e umidade das bagas para a cultivar Pinot Noir. / Disserta??o (Mestrado) ? Programa de P?s-Gradua??o em Produ??o Vegetal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 2010. / ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the effect of hydrogenated cyanamide and phenology of production in Pinot Meunier and Pinot Noir cultivars in Diamantina/MG.?The experiments were conducted in commercial property located at Diamantina/MG.?The vineyard was established in 2005 with the Pinot Meunier and Pinot Noir cultivars, grafted on rootstock Pausen 1103, deployed with a spacement of 1 m between plants and 2.5 m between rows.?The plants were conducted with 2 rods in an arrangement of vertical cordon and three wires.?The pruning was performed on September 4, 2008 leaving a short stem with two buds per spur.?To characterize the phenology were made visually observations every two days from pruning to harvest.?The thermal demands were calculated from the observed temperatures at the meteorological station of Diamantina/MG.?For the maturation curves was used a juice to make chemical evaluation of total soluble solids (TSS), total titratable acidity (TTA) and the TSS/TTA ratio.?To evaluate the effect of hydrogenated cyanamide on sprouting, early maturation and the physicochemical characteristics of the Pinot Meunier and Pinot Noir cultivars grown in Diamantina/MG where the assessments of plants were made every two days, then there were measured the percentage of budding?and the percentage of berries in early maturation.?At harvest it was counted the number of clusters per plant and there were sampled 15 berries per plot for the following physicochemical evaluations of berries: humidity, mass, longitudinal diameter (DL) and transversal diameter (TD), LD/TD ratio content of?total soluble solids (TSS), total titratable acidity (TTA), TSS/ATT ratio, reducing sugars, anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolic compounds and pH.?The results show that the duration of phenological period for the Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier cultivars are from 145 to 155 days, respectively, for the production of summer crops in Diamantina/MG, which may consider the Pinot Meunier variety in early maturity.?The thermal requirement needed for the production of Pinot Meunier from pruning to harvest was 1340.67 GD and Pinot Noir presented 1446.95 GD.?Pinot Noir cultivar showed the highest content of total soluble solids and acidic, and also the highest TSS/TTA ratio of Pinot Meunier in the Diamantina/MG environment.?For the purpose of applying hydrogenated cyanamide there were evidenced the anticipation of early maturation in 17 days for Pinot Meunier, the highest percentage of early-ripening in 45.84% and 28.23% for Pinot Meunier and Pinot Noir, respectively and the increment of some physicochemical characteristics evaluated as total titratable acidity, TSS/TTA ratio, flavonoids and tannins for the Pinot Meunier cultivar and total soluble solid, reducing sugars and humidity from the berries to the Pinot Noir cultivar.

Terroir is determined by a combination of factors in the vineyard including the grape varietal, geology and soil, soil hydrology, physiography, and climate. Although most studies have examined regional differences in wine flavors and associated provenance of wine based on chemistry, few have examined the chemistry of the soil and the ability to trace that chemistry to grape juice and, finally, to the wine. This dissertation examines what soil physical and chemical differences specific to this region might influence grape juice chemistry and wine chemistry. Wine-grapes in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, are grown on three major soil parent materials: volcanic, marine sediments, and loess/volcanic. Winemakers have observed differences in the flavor of Pinot Noir wine made from grapes grown on these different parent materials. This dissertation examines differences in the soil properties and elemental chemistry of the soil parent materials at various vineyards to document their effect on wine chemistry as a step towards understanding differences in flavor. All aspects of the terroir are controlled by carefully selecting vineyards with similar exposure and elevation, the same grape varietal and wine making techniques, and only the soils vary. The hypothesis is that the chemistry of the grape juice and wine reflect the soil in which the grapes were grown and that the three parent materials have soils that can be distinguished by their physical and chemical characteristics. Soil pits were excavated in 20 vineyards, soil properties were described in the field, and soil samples were later analyzed in the laboratory particle size, organic matter, color, pH, cation exchange capacity (ammonium acetate method), clay mineralogy (x-ray diffraction), and elemental chemistry (ICP-MS/AES). X-ray fluorescence was used to examine the pisolites. ICP-MS/AES was used for elemental analysis of grape juice and wines produced from these vineyards. Principal component analysis was used to compare soil physical and chemical characteristics, grape juice and wine chemistry. The physical characteristics of soils from all the three parent materials indicate: they are old (>50,000 years) based on their high clay content, low cation exchange capacity, red colors, and high Fe and Al content. These features indicate enough time has passed to reduce organic matter and other cations at depth, leave behind insoluble Fe and Al, and develop pedogenic clays. In my study region, volcanic and marine sediment soils are more developed with slightly lower acidity than the loess/volcanic soils. A new finding for this region is the presence of pisolites (Fe/Mg concretions) in the volcanic and the loess/volcanic soils, but absent in the marine sediment soils. Winemakers hypothesized that pisolites were present only in loess soils and influenced wine flavor in some way. Volcanic soils have the highest P, S, Fe, Co, Mn, and V concentrations and the lowest As and Sr values. Marine sediment soils have higher Cl and Sr and lower P, Co, Mn, Ba, and V concentrations than volcanic soils. Loess soils have the highest values of K and Mg and are similar to volcanic soils with higher P and V values and similar to marine sediment soils with higher Sr values. The main elements found to be significant in determining one parent material from another are V and Mn (volcanic soils), Mg and K (loess soils), and Sr (marine sediment or loess soils). Sr is slightly higher in grape juice and wine from vines grown on marine sediment parent material compared to volcanic and loess parent material, whereas Mn is higher in the juice and wine from grapes grown in volcanic parent material. P, S, Fe, Co, V, Cl, Ba, Mg, and K did not maintain their relative concentration levels from soil to grape juice to wine. The principal component analysis shows that soil and wine chemistry differs between parent material, but is inconclusive for grape juice chemistry.

The influence of rootstock and canopy density on grape berry composition was investigated over the summer of 2003-2004 on a commercial vineyard at Waipara, North Canterbury. This experiment was designed to investigate the influence of rootstock and canopy density on the acid composition, potassium (K) content and final pH of harvested fruit (Pinot Noir AM 10/5 Lincoln Selection). The trial block consisted of eight rootstocks laid out to an 8 x 8 latin square, each plot consisting of five vines of the same rootstock. Two canopy treatments were overlaid the block (down whole rows, assigned randomly, four rows to each treatment); one treatment allowed to grow naturally, in the other treatment the canopy was thinned removing double burst shoots and laterals. The bunch numbers were adjusted in the Unthinned canopy treatment (UCT) to match the Thinned canopy treatment (TCT). Information was gathered to assess: the canopy size and density (Pinot Quadrat Leaf Layer and Percent Gaps and canopy porosity), the plant yield (and berry size, berries per cluster, cluster weight, clusters per plant), plant K levels at flowering and veraison (from petioles and leaf blades) and berry composition at harvest (soluble solids (as brix), K, titratable acidity (TA), tartaric acid concentration, malic acid concentration and pH). The trial area was non-irrigated on clay loam soils and viticultural management was to best commercial practice. It was found that although rootstock influenced the levels of K in the plant and in the juice at harvest, the level of K in the juice did not influence pH in this experiment (range of rootstock juice K: 808 ppm to 928 ppm, l.s.d. = 75 ppm). The level of tartaric acid concentration in the juice was found to be the dominant influence on the level of pH in this experiment (rootstock pH range: 3.21 to 3.39, l.s.d. = 0.05). The juice concentration of tartaric acid was influenced by both rootstock (rootstock range 4.0 to 4.7 g/L, l.s.d = 0.4) and canopy density (UCT = 4.1, TCT = 4.7, l.s.d. = 0.4), decreased shading positively increasing the level of tartaric acid. The malic acid concentration in the juice was positively influenced by increasing canopy density (UCT = 4.7 g/L, TCT = 4.1 g/L, l.s.d = 0.4) and this played a minor role in the determination of pH in this experiment; an influence of rootstock on the level of malic acid concentration was found. The malic acid concentration strongly influenced the determination of TA (UCT = 11.0 g/L, TCT = 10.2 g/L, l.s.d = 0.5); tartaric acid concentration had a minor influence on the recorded TA. Attempts to characterise the influence of rootstock on malic acid, tartaric acid and pH were inconclusive. Rootstock was found to influence the canopy variables measured in this experiment and the recorded average plant yield. Crosses of Vitis rupestris were found to exhibit the most canopy vigour and those derived from Vitis berlandieri and Vitis riparia the least. The Canopy treatment did not show an influence over yield but the rootstock was found to influence plant yield, through the numbers of berries set in a cluster and the final harvest cluster weight. The influence of rootstock on pH may be described by the influence it exerts on canopy growth and yield but this was thought unlikely. Further research is required to describe the nature of the rootstock influence on K, malic acid, tartaric acid and pH.

Vineyard management strategies, including vineyard floor management and crop level management, can be used to influence vine vigor and fruit composition. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the impact of these practices on Pinot Noir in Oregon's Willamette Valley. Managing crop levels is common in cool climate vineyard production though it is a costly practice. With economic pressures, the premium winegrape industry is questioning whether they can reduce production costs and increase yields without compromising quality. A crop thinning trial was conducted in 2010 and 2011 to address these concerns and to better understand the role of vine balance on fruit composition. Crop levels were moderately (35% crop removed) or severely (65% crop removed) thinned at pre-bloom, fruit set, lag phase, or véraison and compared to full crop treatments. In both years, crop thinning reduced yields but had no effect on berry weight or cluster size. In 2010, poor fruit set reduced overall yields, and thinning treatments resulted in very few differences in vine growth, cluster architecture or fruit composition, including total soluble solids (TSS), pH, titratable acidity (TA), yeast assimilable nitrogen (YAN), anthocyanins, phenolics and tannins. In 2011, yields were much higher due to high fruit set and larger cluster size. No differences were found in vine growth (leaf areas or pruning weights) or fruit YAN, but thinned vines had higher TSS and pH and lower TA than full crop vines at harvest. Fruit thinned at lag phase and véraison had higher TSS and lower TA than fruit thinned pre-bloom. Intensity of thinning had a stronger influence on anthocyanin and tannin concentration than timing, while phenolics were not impacted by either factor. Ravaz index values (fruit yield/pruning weight) below 2.25 and leaf area to yield ratios of 2.25 to 3.25 m²/kg improved fruit composition in 2011 as did later season thinning, though data from the remaining years of this study will provide more insight into appropriate crop load metrics for cool climate Pinot Noir. A second study was implemented in 2011 to determine the impact of crop thinning in vines with different levels of vegetative vigor caused by three vineyard floor management techniques: permanent grass (Festuca rubra spp. rubra) cover (grass), alternating grass cover and tillage (grass & tilled), and tillage of every alleyway (tilled). Crop was thinned at the BB stage of berry development (EL stage 73) to one cluster per shoot (half crop) or not thinned (full crop); all cluster wings were removed at the time of thinning. Tillage treatments had been in place four years prior to the start of the study and competition for nitrogen in grass caused reduced early season vine growth, leaf chlorophyll and canopy size at both bloom and véraison while crop thinning increased canopy size at véraison. Yields were altered by tillage and crop thinning treatments, as grass had fewer clusters per shoot and berries per cluster, and crop thinning reduced yields to 64.7% of full crop across all tillage treatments. At harvest, grass had the lowest TA while TSS and pH were not affected by tillage. Crop thinning increased TSS but did not impact pH or TA. Anthocyanins were affected by both tillage and thinning and were found to be related to vine yield, YAN, leaf N, and leaf area index. Tannins were highest in grass but were not affected by crop thinning, and phenolics were not changed by either factor. Few interactions between tillage and crop thinning were found, but as variables such as yield per vine were impacted by both treatment factors, monitoring long term effects of crop / Graduation date: 2012

Graduation date: 2004