Tez (Yüksek Lisans) - Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Orman Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, 2006. / Kaynakça var.

The mechanism of drought resistance in the seedlings of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and Brutia pine (Pinus brutia) was investigated. Both species showed anatomical and morphological adaptations to conserve moisture. Aleppo pine had a thicker cuticle, fewer stomata per unit length, per unit area, and per needle than Brutia pine. A significant number of Aleppo pine stomata were sealed with a waxy layer. Brutia pine had shorter needles, smaller needle surface area, a smaller surface area-to-volume ratio, and longer main root length. The two species were similar in height growth and in the seasonal trend of total non-structural carbohydrates (reducing sugars and starch). Brutia pine had more reducing sugars and less starch in its shoots than Aleppo pine. The latter had a greater amount of total non-structural carbohydrates and starch when the seedlings were subjected to dry down moisture stress. Electron microscopy techniques were used to monitor ultrastructural changes in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells. Aleppo pine was found to contain chloroplasts exhibiting water stress-related damage at a relative water content of 62 percent, where as Brutia pine chloroplasts were disrupted. It is suggested that future investigations examine the physiological manifestation of drought mechanism at the cellular and molecular levels of both species.

A greenhouse experiment was conducted over a ninety day period to test the effect of different nitrogen fertilizer regimes and several application rates of compounds with gibberellin and cytokinin activity (GA4/7 and BA, respectively) on the growth and development of Pinus brutia var. eldarica. Nitrogen produced no significant effects and this was attributed to its abundance in the potting medium, to begin with. All levels of growth regulators used showed a highly significant effect on vegetative development. A reduction in root collar diameter, shoot elongation, needle nitrogen content and oven-dry weight, was observed, especially when the medium and high hormonal rates were used. Phytotoxicity increased with the increase in concentration of both chemicals. Ba induced a proliferation of adventitious buds along the stem of saplings, but this was accompanied with rapid new top growth and branching at the top only when BA was applied in conjunction with GA4/7.

Turkish red pine is coastal tree and is a drought resistant pine that withstands more aridity and poor soils than most other timber species growing in the same climatic conditions. In Turkey, this species grows in southern and western Anatolia and is also found in the Marmara region. Drought results in a water deficit in plant tissues, which, in turn, can lead to an imbalance in the redox poise of plant cells, and thus inducing oxidative stress in plants. Resistance to conditions associated with oxidative-stress must, in part, rely on endogenous antioxidative defense mechanisms required to maintain cellular homeostasis. Glutathione is one of the major endogenous antioxidants in plants known to play an important role in plant defense mechanisms. Glutathione S-transferase (GST, EC 2.5.1.18) is a GSH dependent detoxifying enzyme in plants, which catalyzes the conjugation of GSH. In this study, we investigated the changes in cytosolic glutathione S-transferase enzyme activity using CDNB as substrate and total thiol amount in Pinus brutia Ten., related to the drought stress during four months, June to September. The osmotic pressure in the needles was also determined as an indirect measure of drought condition. Together with the increase in the temperature values from June to July, GST enzyme activity increased from 15,78 &plusmn / 1,36 &micro / moles min-1 mg protein-1 to 22,91 &plusmn / 1,99 &micro / moles min-1 mg protein-1 which was statistically significant. However in August, GST activity had fallen to 16,54 &plusmn / 1,61 &micro / moles/min/mg protein, which may be because of a local rainfall at the beginning of the August in the sampling area. In September, GST activity significantly increased with respect to June, in accordance with high temperatures. The total thiol amount was not changed significantly during the sampling period. Although there were statistically significant changes in osmotic pressure in the needdles collected during the same sampling period, it did not exactly correlated to the changes in GST activity.

Introduction and objectives: The correct assessment of resources is a key condition for ensuring the sustainable supply of forest resources. In Syria, sustainable forest management is limited, because there is practically not enough knowledge on how to determine an annual growth, how future developments can be predicted, how the site productivity and the optimal rotation age can be accurately estimated, or which thinning regime is best suitable. To cover these gaps and to answer the questions, objective of the work is to develop an individual-tree growth model based on real-time series. Methodology and results: The study analyzed existing inventory data that came from 61 plots (51 for modeling and 10 for validation). The data used to develop the individual tree growth model could be categorized into four groups: Measured and calculated individual trees, variables describing the growth, measured plot variables, calculated stand variables.e.g. Stand basal area, stand volume, mean stand height…. Plot-wise equations for tree height, crown diameter and crown length were used to model the missing data values. The also analyzed the factors affecting the individual tree growth: competition and the site index. The study analyzed the competition using a set of distance-dependent and independent competition indices. The results found it that distance-independent and dependent competition indices have a consistent negative impact on tree basal area increment. On another hand, competition stimulates a little the height increment before start decreasing as competition increases. The best distance-independent indices were candidate for further modeling. Site index which is a measure of potential site productivity and it is defined in this work as stand dominant height at given age. The study tested 10 equations. Sloboda equation was confirmed as most appropriate for site index characterization of Pinus brutia stands in Syria. Then, the study tested the statistical models for describing the important life processes of single trees which consists of growth and mortality equations. Growth equations included diameter increment, height increment, crown ratio and generalized height-diameter equation. The study developed diameter increment equation as function of tree size, site characteristics (site index and geo-climatic variation OGV), and competition variables. The equation showed good performance for explaining the variations in diameter increment, where the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.58. One supplementary equation for diameter increment equation was fitted without geo-climatic variation (OGV) and showed similar performance. XVIII The study developed two individual tree height increment equations: linearized height increment in similar way to that developed to diameter increment, and the second equation is Modifier-Potential height increment by achieving Nagel‟s equation (1999). Modifier-Potential height increment is more desirable to be applied in pure even stands of Pinus brutia forests because it gave better results than linearized height increment, and requires less information. The study also developed the crown ratio equation using tree size, competition, and site variables. The exponential equation performed best. Concerning the height-diameter relationship, the study tested 4 equations. The equation proposed by Mirkovich (1958) provides more satisfactory results as compared to the other tested equations. Finally, the study developed the mortality equation as function of stand variables, competition and site variables and could be applied deterministically or stochastically. The study implemented the forest simulation PINUS-SYRIA in NETLOGO. The simulation model allowed us to simulate the behavior of the individual-tree growth mortality dynamics under different conditions (site characteristics and competition) which allowed deep understanding of dynamic of Pinus brutia stands in Syria, and it showed that stochastic and deterministic simulations of mortality equation yield different results for the same single-tree model and the same initial conditions. The model applied forest management scenarios to suggest the optimal rotation age and most appropriate thinning regime. Thinning improved the growth rates for diameter at breast height, tree height and tree volume, the improvement on diameter increment is clearer than on height increment, and optimal rotation age was determined upon site index and density. Finally, the study tested the individual-tree growth model by using independent data and applying the global sensitivity analysis. Conclusions: The PINUS-Syria Model can be applied effectively in several aspects of forest management. Firstly, it can be used for sustainable forest management as determining the rotation length in the absence of thinning and simulating the effect of different scenarios of thinning regimes on the stand development. Based on the simulation results, this study suggests one thinning scenarios with heavy intensity in good and very good sites, and one or two thinning with moderate, heavy or very heavy thinning in medium and poor sites depending on the density.:ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V TABLE OF CONTENTS VII LIST OF FIGURES X LIST OF TABLES XII APPENDICES XIV ABBREVIATIONS XV SUMMARY XVII ZUSAMMENFASSUNG XIX 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Forest growth and yield models 2 1.2.1 Site productivity 5 1.2.2 Competition 6 1.2.3 Individual-tree diameter increment 9 1.2.4 Individual-tree height increment 11 1.2.5 Individual-tree mortality 12 1.2.6 Individual-tree crown ratio 15 1.2.7 Height-diameter relations 15 1.2.8 Model evaluation 16 1.2.9 Thinning treatment 17 1.3 Individual-based simulation tools 18 1.4 Objective and research questions of this thesis 19 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS 21 2.1 Study area and sites 21 2.2 General research framework 26 2.3 Data collection 28 2.3.1 Tree level variables 28 2.3.2 Stand level variables 29 2.4 Data preparation 30 2.4.1 Height, crown diameter and crown length curves 30 2.4.2 Calculation of tree variables 31 2.4.3 Calculation of stand level variables 34 2.5 Studying the factors that affect individual-tree growth 36 2.5.1 Competition Analysis 36 2.5.2 Developing the site index 40 2.5.2.1 Fitting the site index equation 40 2.5.2.2 Selection of reference age for site index 41 2.6 Individual-tree growth model 43 2.6.1 Development of diameter increment equation 43 2.6.2 Development of height increment equation 44 2.6.2.1 Development of linearized height increment equation 44 2.6.2.2 Development potential modifier height increment 45 2.6.3 Development of individual-tree crown ratio 46 2.6.4 Generalized height- diameter equation 48 2.6.5 Development of individual-tree mortality equation 48 2.7 Simulation of individual-tree growth model 51 2.7.1 The purpose 51 2.7.2 Entities stand variables and scales 51 2.7.3 Process overview and scheduling 52 2.7.4 Design concepts 53 1. Basic principles 53 2. Emergence 53 3. Interaction 55 4. Observation 55 5. Sensing 55 6. Stochasticity 55 7.Initialization 55 2.7.5 Sub-models 56 2.8 Methods used for model evaluation 57 2.8.1 Sensitivity analysis 57 2.8.2 Validation procedure 57 3 RESULTS 59 3.1 Results of initial data processing 59 3.1.1 The results of height curve fitting 59 3.1.2 Calculation of stand variables 60 3.1.3 Crown diameter curves 61 3.1.4 Crown length curves 62 3.2 Competition indices 62 3.2.1 Spearman correlation test 63 3.2.2 Determination of appropriate competition indices 63 3.3 Site index 67 3.4 Individual-tree growth model 70 3.4.1 Diameter increment equation 70 3.4.2 Development of height increment equations 73 3.4.2.1 Development of realized height increment equation 73 3.4.2.2 Development of potential-modifier height increment 75 3.4.3 Crown ratio equation 76 3.4.4 Generalized height-diameter relationship 78 3.4.5 Mortality equation 79 3.5 Simulation of individual-tree growth model 82 3.5.1 Short-term prediction of a eight-year period 82 3.5.2 Model plausibility 84 3.5.3 Sensitivity analysis 89 3.5.4 Application of the PINUS-Syria Model 92 3.5.4.1 Optimal rotation age 92 3.5.4.2 Thinning treatment 93 4 DISCUSSION 96 4.1 Data collection, size and representation 96 4.2 Individual tree’s response to competition 98 4.3 Site curves of Pinus brutia and forest yield 100 4.4 Individual-tree growth model 102 4.4.1 Diameter increment equation 102 4.4.2 Height increment equations 103 4.4.3 Crown ratio 105 4.4.4 Height-diameter equations 106 4.4.5 Mortality equation 107 4.5 Model Applications 110 4.6 Outlook on the future 112 REFERENCES 114 APPENDICES 125

Nine provenances of Turkish red pine (<i>Pinus brutia Ten</i>.), an eastern Mediterranean conifer, taken from a wide range of locations in Turkey, were grown in individual pots in a greenhouse either with or without joint goose goatgrass (<i>Aegilops cylindrica</i> L.) under either high or low soil water availability for two growing seasons. The study consisted of two separate experiments started at times with varying microenvironmental conditions and Turkish red pine (TRP) provenances. Diameter and secondary needle, stem, and root biomass were measured at the end of the second growing season, while height was measured after both the first and second growing seasons. Pine stem water potential (SWP), measured at the end of the second growing season, was the only physiological variable in the study. / Master of Science

In long term, to discover the genes responsible for wood production, genetic control of wood specific gravity (WSG) in Pinus brutia Ten. (Turkish red pine) open pollinated Ceyhan progeny trial, which was established with the seeds collected from 168 clones originated from six clonal Turkish red pine seed orchards was studied. Wood samples were taken by destructive sampling during the rouging of this trial at the age of seven. Specifically / (1) to examine the magnitude of family differences and its components for wood specific gravity (WSG) and growth traits (height, diameter and stem volume) / (2) to determine WSG inheritance and its genetic correlation with growth traits / and (3) to estimate breeding values of 168 families for the WSG and to predict genetic gain if selection is based on phenotypic, rouged and genotypic seed orchard by reselecting the best parents with respect to WSG. Differences among the 168 families for mean WSG was large (ranged from 0.35 to 0.44), as indicated by high individual (0.42+0.07) and family mean (0.55+0.03) heritabilities. Family differences and high heritabilities were also observed for all growth traits. Genetic correlations between WSG and growth traits were statistically insignificant (near zero), while low and insignificant negative phenotypic correlations among the same traits were observed. Realized genetic gain for single trait selection at age seven was insignificant (0.37 %) for WSG and 8.4 % for stem volume in phenotypic seed orchards. Average genetic gain in breeding zone after roguing, by leaving the best 20 clones in each seed orchard, reached 1.7 % for WSG and 16.1 % for stem volume. Genetic gain (relative to controls) at the age of seven obtained from the first generation genotypic seed orchards consisting the best 30 clones was estimated 5.2 % for WSG and 35 % for stem volume. Multi-trait selection was also proposed in this study for the same traits. Selection of best 10 families for the highest WSG and stem volume breeding values produce 5.6 % genetic gain for WSG and 27.7 % genetic gain for stem volume. For the future, the 168 families with known phenotypic and genotypic values regarding to WSG will be screened for the genes responsible for wood production.