<div>Developments in modern electronics drive device design to smaller scale and higher electric fields and currents. Device size reductions to microscale and smaller have invalidated the assumption of avalanche formation for the traditional Paschen’s law for predicting gas breakdown. Under these conditions, the stronger electric fields induce field emission driven microscale gas breakdown; however, these theories often rely upon semi-empirical models to account for surface effects and the dependence of gas ionization on electric field, making them difficult to use for predicting device behavior a priori.</div><div>This dissertation hypothesizes that one may predict a priori how to tune emission physics and breakdown conditions for various electrode conditions (sharpness and surface roughness), gap size, and pressure. Specifically, it focuses on experiments to demonstrate the implications of surface roughness and emitter shape on gas breakdown for microscale and nanoscale devices at atmospheric pressure and simulations to extend traditional semi-empirical representations of the ionization coefficient to the relevant electric fields for these operating conditions.</div><div>First, this dissertation reports the effect of multiple discharges for 1 μm, 5 μm, and 10 μm gaps at atmospheric pressure. Multiple breakdown events create circular craters to 40 μm deep with crater depth more pronounced for smaller gap sizes and greater cathode surface roughness. Theoretical models of microscale breakdown using this modified effective gap distance agree well with the experimental results.</div><div>We next investigated the implications of gap distance and protrusion sharpness for nanoscale devices made of gold and titanium layered onto silicon wafers electrically isolated with SiO2 for gas breakdown and electron emission at atmospheric pressure. At lower voltages, the emitted current followed the Fowler-Nordheim (FN) law for field emission (FE). For either a 28 nm or 450 nm gap, gas breakdown occurred directly from FE, as observed for microscale gaps. For a 125 nm gap, emission current begins to transition toward the Mott-Gurney law for space-charge limited emission (SCLE) with collisions prior to undergoing breakdown. Thus, depending upon the conditions, gas breakdown may directly transition from either SCLE or FE for submicroscale gaps.</div><div>Applying microscale gas breakdown theories to predict this experimental behavior requires appropriately accounting for all physical parameters in the model. One critical parameter in these theories is the ionization coefficient, which has been determined semi-empirically with fitting parameters tabulated in the literature. Because these models fail at the strong electric fields relevant to the experiments reported above, we performed particle-in-cell simulations to calculate the ionization coefficient for argon and helium at various gap distances, pressures, and applied voltages to derive more comprehensive semi-empirical relationships to incorporate into breakdown theories.</div><div>In summary, this dissertation provides the first comprehensive assessment of the implications of surface roughness on microscale gas breakdown, the transition in gas breakdown and electron emission mechanisms at nanoscale, and the extension of semi-empirical laws for ionization coefficient. These results will be valuable in developing theories to predict electron emission and gas breakdown conditions for guiding nanoscale device design.</div>

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / William L. Dunn / Dense plasma focus (DPF) devices are pulsed power devices capable of producing short-lived, hot and dense plasmas (~10[superscript]19 cm[superscript]-3) through a fast compression of plasma sheath. A DPF device provides intense bursts of electrons and ion beams, X-rays, and 2.5 MeV neutrons when operated with deuterium through the fusion reaction [superscript]2H(d,n)[superscript]3He. The Kansas State University DPF machine was designed and constructed in early 2010. The device was characterized to determine its performance as a neutron source. The device was shown to produce 5.0x10[superscript]7 neutrons/pulse using a tungsten-copper anode. Such machines have the advantages of being non-radioactive, movable, and producing short pulses (typically tens of nanoseconds), which allows rapid interrogation. The signature-based radiation-scanning (SBRS) method has been used to distinguish targets that contain explosives or explosive surrogates from targets that contain materials called “inert,” meaning they are not explosive-like. Different targets were placed in front of the DPF source at a distance of 45 cm. Four BC-418 plastic scintillators were used to measure the direct neutron yield and the neutrons scattered from various targets; the neutron source and the detectors were shielded with layers of lead, stainless steel, and borated polyethylene to shield against the X-rays and neutrons. One of the plastic scintillators was set at 70[supercript]o and two were set at 110[superscript]o from the line of the neutron beam; a bare [superscript]3He tube was used for detecting scattered thermal neutrons. Twelve metal cans of one-gallon each containing four explosive surrogates and eight inert materials were used as targets. Nine materials in five-gallon cans including three explosive surrogates were also used. The SBRS method indicated a capability to distinguish the explosive surrogates in both experiments, although the five gallon targets gave more accurate results. The MCNP code was used to validate the experimental work and to simulate real explosives. The simulations indicated the possibility to use the time of flight (TOF) technique in future experimental work, and were able to distinguish all the real explosives from the inert materials.

The application of a theoretical framework for calculating the radial electric field in the DIII-D tokamak edge plasma is discussed. Changes in the radial electric field are correlated with changes in many important edge plasma phenomena, including rotation, the L-H transition, and ELM suppression. A self-consistent model for the radial electric field may therefore suggest a means of controlling other important parameters in the edge plasma. Implementing a methodology for calculating the radial electric field can be difficult due to its complex interrelationships with ion losses, rotation, radial ion fluxes, and momentum transport. The radial electric field enters the calculations for ion orbit loss. This ion orbit loss, in turn, affects the radial ion flux both directly and indirectly through return currents, which have been shown theoretically to torque the edge plasma causing rotation. The edge rotation generates a motional radial electric field, which can influence both the edge pedestal structure and additional ion orbit losses. In conjunction with validating the analytical modified Ohm’s Law model for calculating the radial electric field, modeling efforts presented in this dissertation focus on improving calculations of ion orbit losses and x-loss into the divertor region, as well as the formulation of models for fast beam ion orbit losses and the fraction of lost particles that return to the confined plasma. After rigorous implementation of the ion orbit loss model and related mechanisms into fluid equations, efforts are shifted to calculate effects from rotation on the radial electric field calculation and compared to DIII-D experimental measurements and computationally simulated plasmas. This calculation of the radial electric field will provide a basis for future modeling of a fast, predictive calculation to characterize future tokamaks like ITER.

<p>Plasma-based particle acceleration holds the promise to make the applications that revolve around accelerators more affordable. The central unifying theme of this dissertation is the modeling of certain non-linear and relativistic phenomena in plasma dynamics to devise mechanisms that benefit plasma-accelerators. Plasma acceleration presented here has two distinct flavors depending upon the accelerated particle mass which dictates the acceleration structure velocity and potential. The first deals with ion acceleration, where acceleration structure velocities are a significant fraction of the speed of light, with major applications in medicine. The second focusses on the acceleration of electrons and positrons for light-sources and colliders where the acceleration structures are wakefields with phase-velocities near the speed of light.</p> <p>The increasing Lorentz factor of the laser-driven electron quiver momentum forms the basis of Relativistically Induced Transparency Acceleration (RITA) scheme of ion acceleration. Lighter ions are accelerated by reflecting off a propagating acceleration structure, referred to as a snowplow, formed by the compression of ponderomotively driven critical layer electrons excited in front of a high intensity laser pulse in a fixed-ion plasma. Its velocity is controlled by tailoring the laser pulse rise-time and rising density gradient scale-length. We analytically model its induced transparency driven propagation with a 1-D model based on the linearized dispersion relation. The model is shown to be in good agreement with the weakly non-linear simulations. As the density compression rises into the strongly non-linear regime, the scaling law predictions remain accurate but the model does not exactly predict the RITA velocity or the accelerated ion-energy. Multi-dimensional plasma effects modify the laser radial envelope by self-focussing in the rising density gradient which can be integrated into our model and filamentation which is mitigated by a matched laser focal spot-size. We show that the critical layer motion in RITA compares favorably to the bulk-plasma motion driven by radiation pressure or collision-less shocks.</p> <p>Non-linear mixing of the laser, incident on and reflected off the propagating critical layer modulates its envelope affecting the acceleration structure velocity and potential, in the process setting up a feedback loop. For long pulses the envelope distortion grows with time, disrupting the accelerated ion-beam spectral shape. We model the Chirp Induced Transparency Acceleration (ChITA) mechanism that over- comes this effect by introducing decoherence through a frequency chirp in the laser. </p> <p>In a rising density gradient, the non-linearity of electron trajectories leads to the phase-mixing self-injection of electrons into high phase-velocity plasma wakefields. The onset of trapping depends upon the wake amplitude and the density gradient scale-length. This self-injection mechanism is also applicable to controlling the spuriously accelerated electrons that affect the beam-quality. </p> <p>Non-linear ion dynamics behind a train of asymmetric electron-wake excites a cylindrical ion-soliton similar to the solution of the cylindrical Korteweg-de Vries (cKdV) equation. This non-linear ion-wake establishes an upper limit on the repetition rate of the future plasma colliders. The soliton is excited at the non-linear electron wake radius due to the time-asymmetry of its radial fields. In a non-equilibrium wake heated plasma the radial electron temperature gradient drives the soliton. Its radially outwards propagation leaves behind a partially-filled ion-wake channel. </p> <p>We show positron-beam driven wakefield acceleration in the ion-wake channel. Optimal positron-wakefield acceleration with linear focussing fields is shown to require a matched hollow-plasma channel of a radius that depends upon the beam properties. </p> / Dissertation

Electron Bernstein waves are a mode of oscillation in a plasma, thought a candidate for providing radiofrequency heating and non-inductive current drive in spherical tokamaks. Previous studies of these modes have relied on neglecting or simplifying the contribution made by relativistic effects. This work presents fully relativistic numerical results that show the mode's dispersion relation for a wide range of parameters. Relativistic effects are shown to shift the location of the resonance as in previous studies, but the effects beyond this are shown to matter only in high temperature (10-20keV) plasmas. At these higher temperatures however, the fully relativistic model differs markedly. The assumption that the mode is electrostatic is looked at, and found to be inadequate for describing fully the electron Bernstein modes dispersion relation. Simple estimates that neglect toroidal effects show current drive efficiency is expected to be an order of magnitude higher than that for conventional electron cyclotron current drive using the O or X modes. It is shown for a number of model tokamaks that heating the center of the plasma and driving current using EBWs is impossible launching from the outside due to strong damping of the wave at higher cyclotron harmonics. Results from a code based on a more complicated semi-analytic model of current drive, that includes toroidal effects and calculates the average current drive over the magnetic surface, confirm the higher expected current drive efficiency, and the code is shown to give good agreement with a Fokker-Planck code. The higher values of perpendicular refractive index associated with the EBWs are shown to mitigate the deleterious effects of trapping on current drive efficiency to a small extent. The details of the magnetic field are found to be unimportant to the calculation beyond determing where the wave is absorbed. The codes written to produce these results are outlined before each set of results. The last of these is considerably faster than conventional Fokker-Planck codes and a useful tool in studying electron cyclotron current drive in the future.

L'étude des plasmas denses et tièdes est un domaine qui suscite aujourd'hui l'intérêt de nombreux groupes de recherche de part son large spectre d'applications. Ce régime de la matière, qui recouvre une densité proche de celle du solide et une température allant de 0.1 à une dizaine d'eV, est encore mal connu et présente une grande complexité de part son caractère partiellement dégénéré (électrons) et partiellement corrélé (ions). Afin d'ex- plorer ce régime, nous proposons de le sonder par spectroscopie d'absorption X près des seuils grâce à une source X ultra-rapide (ps), intense, produite par laser. La spectroscopie d'absorption X près des seuils (XANES, EXAFS) est un diagnostic qui permet l'étude de la structure atomique locale de milieux éventuellement non-cristallins (solides, liquides, plasmas denses et tièdes). Elle nécessite l'utilisation de sources X de large bande spectrale ajustée au seuil d'absorption de l'élément étudié. Ma thèse s'est déroulée en plusieurs étapes. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes attachés à développer une source X ultra-brève (quelques picosecondes) créées par laser et adaptée à la spectroscopie d'absorption X de l'aluminium. Nous avons réalisé une telle source X en utilisant le rayonnement de couche M de plasmas d'éléments de Z élevé, produits par une impulsion laser femtoseconde focalisée sur une cible solide : plus particulièrement issu du faisceau de transition 4f −3d. Le spectre d'émission de cette source a été étudié autour du flanc K de l'aluminium, c'est-à-dire dans la gamme de 1.50 à 1.75 keV. Une série d'expériences, consistant en des mesures spectrales et temporelles de l'émission X, a été effectuée avec un laser kHz (5 mJ, 30 fs), focalisé sur différentes cibles solides : Sm, Gd, Dy, Er et Yb. Les résultats ont été comparés avec des simulations Averroès - Transpec (code collisionnel - radiatif hors équilibre thermodynamique local, couplé à un traitement de la physique atomique en superconfigurations). Après optimisation, le rayonnement X étudié présente un spectre large-bande dans la gamme énergétique sou- haitée et une durée d'émission de ∼ 4 ps. Les intensités X atteintes sont de l'ordre de quelques 1e7 photons par tir, par eV et par sr, soit un rendement de 1‰ de l'énergie laser émis dans la gamme 1.50 - 1.75 keV. Dans un second temps, nous avons développé un spectromètre d'absorption X adapté aux caractéristiques des sources X créées par laser. Ce dispositif consiste en la mesure simultanée du spectre transmis par un échantillon d'aluminium et du spectre dit de référence qui consiste à mesurer directement le rayonnement X émis par la source à chaque tir laser. Cette mesure permet ensuite de calculer la transmission et donc l'absorption corrigée des fluctuations tir à tir de la source X. Des spectres d'absorption ont été enregistrés près du seuil K d'un échantillon froid d'aluminium (20°C), en accumulant quelques milliers de tirs laser (soit quelques secondes seulement à 1 kHz). Les structures XANES sont claire- ment identifiées et résolues avec un niveau de bruit inférieur à 1 %. De tels spectres XANES, obtenus sur des installations laser de hautes cadences, ouvrent des perspectives pour la réalisation d'expériences pompe - sonde sur de " petites " installations. Enfin, nous avons réalisé une expérience en collaboration avec le LULI, afin de caracté- riser un échantillon d'aluminium préalablement chauffé de façon isochore par un faisceau de protons issus de l'interaction entre une impulsion laser ultra-intense (∼ 1e19 W/cm2), ultra-courte (fs) et une cible solide d'or. Grâce à cette méthode, l'échantillon est très rapi- dement porté à de relativement hautes températures (jusqu'à une dizaine d'eV). Dans ces conditions, la détente du plasma n'intervenant qu'après quelques dizaines de picosecondes, il est possible de sonder le plasma tiède lorsque sa température est homogène et que sa densité est proche de celle du solide. En accord avec des travaux théoriques, les résultats expérimentaux montrent une disparition des structures XANES lorsque l'alumi- nium atteint une température de l'ordre de 1 eV. On attribue cette disparition à une perte de corrélation ion - ion. En perspective de cette étude, nous nous proposons d'étendre ce travail à l'analyse des plasmas denses et tièdes grâce à des techniques de chauffage diverses comme par exemple le chauffage par laser (fs), par propagation de chocs générés par laser (ns), ou encore par chauffage par rayonnement X ou XUV de type FEL (fs). Il est aussi envisagé d'étendre cette étude à d'autres éléments tels que le Fer.

Published online: 26 April 2013

It is possible to reach the radiation-reaction–dominated regime in today’s high-intensity laser facilities, using the collision of a wakefield-accelerated GeV electron beam with a 30 fs laser pulse of intensity 10²² Wcm^-2. This would demonstrate that the yield of high energy gamma rays is increased by the stochastic nature of photon emission: a beam of 10⁹ electrons will emit 6300 photons with energy > 700 MeV, 60 times the number predicted classically. Detecting those photons, or a prominent low energy peak in the electron beam's post-collision energy spectrum, will provide strong evidence of quantum radiation reaction; we place constraints on the accuracy of timing necessary to achieve this. This experiment would provide benchmarking for the simulations that will be used to study the plasmas produced in the next generation of laser facilities. With focused intensities > 10²³ Wcm^-2, these will be powerful enough to generate high fluxes of gamma rays and electron-positron pairs from laser–laser and laser–solid interactions. It will become possible to test the physics of exotic astrophysical phenomena, such as pair cascades in pulsar magnetospheres, and explore fundamental aspects of quantum electrodynamics (QED). To that end we will discuss: classical theories of radiation reaction; QED processes in intense fields; and a Monte Carlo algorithm by which the latter may be included in particle-in-cell codes. The feedback between QED processes and classical plasma dynamics characterises a new regime we call QED-plasma physics.

The Sun ionizes a small fraction of Earth's atmosphere above roughly 60 km, producing the plasma that constitutes the ionosphere. Radio signals passing through the ionosphere scatter off of plasma density structures created by the Farley-Buneman instability (FBI). While numerous studies have characterized the FBI's intrinsic nature, its evolution within the broader context of the surrounding plasma remains enigmatic. This dissertation answers two fundamental questions about the FBI: How does it interact with density gradients? How does its non-linear evolution depend on the background plasma? The fourth chapter examines the combined development of the FBI and the gradient drift instability (GDI) using a 2-D simulation of the equatorial ionosphere. A half-kilometer wave perturbs a plasma layer perpendicular to the ambient magnetic field, causing the perturbed layer to develop GDI waves along the gradient aligned with the ambient electric field, as well as FBI waves in a region where the total electric field exceeds a certain threshold. Early radar observations suggested that these two instabilities were distinct phenomena; the reported results illustrate their coupled nature. The fifth chapter presents 2-D simulations in which a one-kilometer plasma wave develops an electric field large enough to trigger meter-scale waves. Such large-scale waves arise via the GDI within the daytime ionospheric gradient around 100-110 km. Typical ionospheric radars only observe meter-scale irregularities but observations show meter-scale waves tracing out larger structures. Simulated meter-scale FBI in the troughs and crests of kilometer-scale GDI matches radar observations of the daytime equatorial ionosphere, answers a question about electric-field saturation raised by rocket observations in the 1980s, and predicts an anomalous cross-field conductivity important to magnetosphere-ionosphere (M-I) coupling. The sixth chapter of this dissertation presents 3-D simulations of the FBI at a range of altitudes and driving electric fields appropriate to the auroral ionosphere, where it plays a role in M-I coupling. Research has thoroughly established the linear theory of FBI but rigorous analysis of radar measurements requires an understanding of the turbulent stage. These simulations explain the change in instability flow direction with altitude, with regard to the direction of background plasma flow.

O objetivo deste trabalho é a investigação da excitação e detecção de ondas globais de Alfvén no plasma do tokamak TCABR para fins diagnósticos. As ondas são excitadas com o uso de uma ou duas antenas localizadas dentro do vaso do TCABR. Para excitar o modo global de Alfvén, as antenas são alimentadas com corrente de radio-frequência de até $15$A cada, na faixa de frequência de $2-4 MHz$. O esquema apresentado nos permitiu estimar o valor da massa efetiva no centro do plasma, que tem seu valor afetado pela concentração de impurezas. O amplificador de corrente para as antenas é baseado no chaveamento de MOSFETs. As ondas são excitadas com o uso de baixa potência, assim não causam perturbação nos parâmetros básicos do plasma. Foi verificada a variação da frequência de ressonância do modo global de Alfvén com a densidade do plasma. A localização da ressonância do modo é identificada na parte central do plasma, devido ao batimento da amplitude da onda com oscilações dente de serra, de modo que a inversão de fase entre o batimento e a oscilação dente de serra melhora a precisão da determinação da condição ressonante. A paridade toroidal dos modos excitados é determinada com o uso de duas antenas localizadas em posição toroidal oposta na câmara do TCABR e com diferença de fase na corrente de radio-frequência. O conhecimento do número de onda toroidal é importante para a correta estimativa da localização do modo excitado e do valor da massa efetiva do plasma. O valor obtido para a estimativa da massa efetiva, primeiramente, foi mais alto que nossa expectativas e não era bem relacionado com estimativas da condutividade do plasma. O valor obtido foi de $A_{eff}\\approx 1.60$, com um erro sistemático. Para calibrar a densidade central do plasma usamos dados do reflectômetro e realizamos disparos com gás hélio, que tem a mesma massa efetiva que a maioria das impurezas do TCABR. Finalmente, estimamos a massa efetiva como $A_{eff} = 1.40 \\pm 0.07$, valor compatível com a estimativa de $Z_{eff}$. / The goal of this study is experimental detection of global Alfvén waves in the plasma of TCABR tokamak for diagnostic. The waves are excited by the use of one or two antennas posed within the shadow of the limiter within the TCABR vessel. To excite the global Alfvén eigenmode the antennas are fed with radio-frequency current of up to $ 15$A each, in the frequency range of $ 2-4 $ MHz. The presented scheme allows us to estimate the value of the effective mass in the centre of the plasma, which has its value affected by the concentration of impurities in the plasma. The amplifier of the antenna current is based on electronically switching MOSFETs. The waves are excited in the plasma with low power, thus it does not cause perturbation of the basic plasma parameters. The variation of the resonance frequency of the global Alfvén eigenmode with density is verified. The location of the resonance is identified in the central part of the plasma due to the wave amplitude beating with sawtooth oscillations, so that the phase inversion between the beating and the sawtooth oscillation improves the accuracy of determining the resonant condition. The toroidal parity of the excited modes is determined with use of two antennas oppositely located within the TCABR chamber and established by phase difference between their radio-frequency current. Knowledge of the toroidal wave number is important for a correct estimate of both the excited mode location and the plasma effective ion mass value. The value of the initially found effective mass was $ A_ {eff} \\approx 1.60$, higher than our expectations at first and did not agree with plasma conductivity estimates, and we proposed that it had a systematic error of approximately $10\\%$. To calibrate the central plasma density, it was used data from a reflectometer and some plasma discharges performed with helium gas, which has the same effective mass as most TCABR impurities. Finally, we estimate the effective mass as $ A_ {eff} = 1.40 \\pm 0.07$, that is consistent with the $ Z_ {eff} $ estimation.