Microbial communities play critical roles in biogeochemical cycles of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, but studies of soil microbial communities have been limited by the diversity and complexity found in most ecosystems. Here we report on work investigating the functional diversity of microbial mat and underlying soil communities in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica across a gradient of phosphorus availability on glacial tills of distinct age and mineral composition in Taylor Valley, Antarctica. Microbial mat and soil DNA were extracted and sequenced on an Illumina NextSeq500 in a 150 bp paired end format. Raw sequences were uploaded to the MG-RAST server for processing and annotation. Community taxonomic and functional annotation were determined using the RefSeq and SEED Subsystem databases, respectively. The results revealed significant variation in microbial mat community taxonomic composition between the two tills, strongly associated with visual assessment of mat morphology, e.g., "black" and "orange" mats, and soil N:P ratios. The underlying soil microbial communities did not exhibit significant differences in diversity between the two tills, but community composition varied significantly across gradients of soil chemistry, particularly extractable-phosphate content even within tills. The relative abundance of biogeochemistry-relevant pathways determined from the SEED database varied amongst soil microbial communities between the two tills. For example, microbial mat communities exhibited significant variation in the relative abundance of key nitrogen and phosphorus metabolism associated genes strongly associated with the underlying soil N:P. These results suggest that spatial variation in geochemistry influences the distribution and activity of microbial mats, but that the microbial mats themselves also exert a significant homogenizing effect on the underlying soil communities and some of the key biogeochemical processes they facilitate. / Master of Science / Microbial communities play critical roles in the processes of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Still, studies of soil microbial communities have been limited by the complex nature of the ecosystems we study. This study examined the diversity of microbial communities in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, specifically looking at how different levels of phosphorus availability in the soil affected microbial function. We used DNA sequencing and databases to determine the taxonomic and functional makeup of these communities. We found that while the microbial mat communities varied significantly based on soil chemistry and appearance, the underlying soil microbial communities did not. We also found evidence suggesting that the microbial mats played a role in regulating some of the key ecosystem processes in the soil. Overall, this study sheds light on how microbial communities are impacted by their environment and how they, in turn, impact their surroundings.

Polar desert environments are limiting in plant available nutrients, mainly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) that severely limit plant growth and establishment. Cryogenic activity regularly patterns the ground into a patchwork of frost boils – sorted circles that are associated with an increase in moisture, fertility and plant cover. Within some frost boils, the accumulation of ice-rich soil at the permafrost table can cause an upward flow of soil organic carbon (SOC) enriched permafrost material into the active layer. These diapiric intrusions are predicted to fuel microbial activity and enrich the horizon in N and P; however, the enrichment of the diapir horizon and accessibility by plants has yet to be studied. The aim of this research was to characterize the N distribution within diapir horizons located in frost boils and the effect of these intrusions on vascular plant N uptake in a polar desert ecosystem of the Canadian High Arctic. Natural abundance and enriched isotope 15N techniques were used to trace the flow of N through the soil-plant system. Surface and diapir horizons contained the highest total C and total N content within frost boils. Natural abundance δ15N analysis indicated that uptake by Salix arctica plants located on frost boils in the absence of a diapir horizon were sourcing N from the surface. However, when diapir nutrients became available, S. arctica plants began sourcing N from the diapir horizon and underlying low SOC sources in the soil, while reducing uptake from the surface. The altered foraging strategy of S. arctica in response to diapir horizon formation was further indicated by significant uptake of atom%15N nutrients that were injected directly into diapir horizons. These findings suggest diapir horizons are enriched in N and accessible by plants roots as an important nutrient source that is instrumental in their survival within frost boils of a polar desert ecosystem in the high arctic.

Cape Bounty, Melville Island is a partially vegetated High Arctic landscape with three main plant communities: polar semi-desert (47% of the study area), mesic tundra (31%) , and wet sedge meadows (7%). The objective of this research was to relate biophysical measurements of soil, vegetation, and CO2 exchange rates in each vegetation type to high resolution satellite data from IKONOS-2, extending plot level measurements to a landscape scale. Field data was collected through six weeks of the 2008 growing season. Two IKONOS images were acquired, one on July 4th and the other on August 2nd. Two products were generated from the satellite data: a land-cover classification and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The three vegetation types were found to have distinct soil and vegetation characteristics. Only the wet sedge meadows were a net sink for CO2; soil respiration tended to exceed photosynthesis in the sparsely vegetated mesic tundra and polar semi-desert. Scaling up the plot measurements by vegetation type area suggested that Cape Bounty was a small net carbon source (0.34 ± 0.47 g C m-2 day-1) in the summer of 2008. NDVI was strongly correlated with percent vegetation cover, vegetation volume, soil moisture, and moderately with soil nitrogen, biomass, and leaf area index (LAI). Photosynthesis and respiration of CO2 both positively correlated with NDVI, most strongly when averaged over the season. NDVI increased over time in every vegetation type, but this change was not reflected in any significant measured changes in vegetation or CO2 flux rates. A simple spatial model was developed to estimate Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE) at every pixel on the satellite images based on NDVI, temperature and incoming solar radiation. It was found that the rate of photosynthesis per unit NDVI was higher early in the growing season. The model estimated a mean flux to the atmosphere of 0.21 g C m-2 day-1 at the time of image acquisition on July 4th, and -0.07 g C m-2 day-1 (a net C sink) on August 2nd. The greatest uncertainty in the relationship between NDVI and CO2 flux was associated with the polar semi-desert class. / Thesis (Master, Geography) -- Queen's University, 2011-12-28 23:27:34.824

Micro-organisms living in the soils of the Canadian High Arctic produce and consume the greenhouse gases (GHGs) CO2, CH4, and N2O, contributing to global nutrient and GHG cycles; however, different vegetation and soil communities differ in their net productions of each gas and the total emissions from the ecosystem. The range of Arctic vegetation communities spans wetlands, tundras, and deserts differing in their soil water contents and other properties such as organic matter content. Previous estimates of total GHG emissions are often imprecise relative to the scale of microbial processes that result in these emissions. Deserts have extremely low levels of both water and organic matter, yet I found that deserts produce nearly as much GHGs as wetter, more fully vegetated tundras. To test the hypothesis that this unexpectedly strong source of GHGs in deserts was a consequence of recently-thawed, organic-rich permafrost, I measured GHG net production throughout the active layer of polar desert soils; both production and consumption of CH4 and N2O, as well as soil respiration were found throughout the profile, indicating no link to thawed permafrost and suggesting these high GHG activities are characteristic features of Arctic polar deserts rather than transient effects of recent warming. I studied the community of microorganisms of the Arctic deserts by examining DNA from soil samples collected from three deserts on Ellesmere Island using DNA microarrays targeted for the functional genes AmoA and pmo. Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) I evaluated the hypotheses that the community of ammonia-oxidizers would be causally linked to the observed patterns of N2O net production, and that methane-oxidizers would be causally linked to CH4 net production. The SEM showed the expected link for CH4 production, but not N2O production. Available nitrogen in Arctic desert soils is primarily in the form of ammonia/ammonium, thus I find it surprising that no link could be found to the nitrifying community. Subsequent analysis of the occurence patterns of nitrous oxide reductase, a gene present in denitrifying bacteria and the only known biological sink for N2O, revealed only a weak association. Thus it remains unknown which organisms are responsible for the high levels of N2O emitted from Arctic polar desert soils. Furthermore, I observed several cases of unusual GHG processes, including a positive correlation between net CO2 and net N2O production in only some soils and some soil layers that consumed both CH4 and N2O.

Les plaques de glace forment de petites masses de glace et de neige permanentes qui sont considérées comme un stade intermédiaire dans le continuum neige-glacier. Elles sont omniprésentes dans les régions polaires, ce qui leur confère une fonction centrale dans l’hydrologie et la géomorphologie des versants. Pourtant, très peu d’études s’y sont intéressées jusqu’à présent. Acquérir des connaissances sur ces plaques apparait donc essentiel, non seulement pour comprendre leurs caractéristiques intrinsèques, mais aussi parce que cela ouvre des perspectives importantes pour comprendre la dynamique du géosystème polaire. Afin de répondre à ce besoin, cette thèse cherche à établir l'origine et le fonctionnement des plaques de glace à l’île Ward Hunt (Haut-Arctique canadien) et d’en comprendre les effets sur la dynamique de versant du désert polaire. Cette recherche sur les plaques de glace a été guidée par une approche multidisciplinaire, conduisant à des études glaciologiques, nivologiques, hydrologiques et biogéomorphologiques. Nos résultats ont montré que les plaques de glace se développent par l’aggradation de glace surimposée qui se forme suite au regel de l'eau de fonte à la base de l’accumulation de neige saisonnière. La texture et les propriétés physiques de cette glace varient en fonction de son âge et de l’intensité des processus de recristallisation. La variabilité spatio-temporelle des plaques de glace est principalement contrôlée par la topographie locale et les conditions micrométéorologiques. En hiver, les apports en neige dans les niches topographiques où se forment les plaques de glace sont assurés par le vent. En été, l’intensité de l’ablation est fortement influencée par le vent et le brouillard, qui modulent les échanges d’énergie à la surface des plaques. L'évolution des plaques de glace se caractérise par une stabilité à long terme due à un mécanisme d'autorégulation du bilan de masse assuré par le contexte topoclimatique. Cependant, en raison de leur petite taille, les plaques de glace peuvent disparaître rapidement lorsque l'ablation estivale dépasse un seuil à partir duquel les conditions topoclimatiques ne peuvent plus assurer leur préservation. À Ward Hunt, la présence des plaques de glace depuis au moins plusieurs siècles fait qu’elles ont fortement contribué au développement des versants. Les apports durables en eau et sédiments qui en découlent en été ont enclenché une suite de processus abiotiques et biotiques azonaux dans les marges pronivales. Il en a résulté la formation de systèmes biogéomorphologiques qui consistent en des lobes de solifluxion et des milieux humides colonisés par de la végétation et un couvert de croute biologique. Les modifications morphologiques et physiques du sol en aval des plaques de glace influencent le régime thermique de surface et les profondeurs de dégel. En outre, le développement des zones humides entraine une modification locale des propriétés physiques de la neige en exacerbant le métamorphisme cinétique qui aboutit à la croissance d’une couche de givre de profondeur à la base du manteau neigeux. En apportant une compréhension holistique des plaques de glace polaires, cette thèse permet des avancées empiriques et conceptuelles importantes qui contribuent à mieux comprendre la dynamique du géosystème de désert polaire à un moment charnière où ces environnements subissent en transition rapide en réponse au changement climatique. / Ice patches are small perennial masses of ice and snow that are considered as part of the continuum between seasonal snow and glacier. They are ubiquitous in the Polar Regions, which gives them an important function in slope hydrology and geomorphology. Ice patches have, however, received very little scientific attention so far. Gaining new knowledge on these cryospheric elements thus appears essential, not only to understand their intrinsic characteristics, but also because it holds important perspectives for understanding the dynamics of the polar geosystem. To address this need, this thesis aims to investigate the origin and functioning of the ice patches at Ward Hunt Island (Canadian High Arctic) and to understand their effects on polar desert slope dynamics. This research on ice patches was guided by a multidisciplinary approach, involving glaciological, snow, hydrological and biogeomorphological studies. Our results demonstrated that ice patches develop through the aggradation of superimposed ice that forms by the refreezing of meltwater at the base of the seasonal snowpack. The texture and physical properties of this ice vary according to its age and the intensity of recrystallization processes. The spatio-temporal variability of ice patches is mainly controlled by local topography and micrometeorological conditions. In winter, the snow supply to the topographic niches where ice patches form is provided by the wind. In summer, the intensity of ablation is strongly influenced by wind and fog, which modulate energy exchange at the surface of the patches. The evolution of ice patches is characterized by long-term stability due to a self-regulating mass balance mechanism provided by the topoclimatic context. However, because of their small size, ice patches can disappear very quickly when summer ablation exceeds a threshold at which topoclimatic conditions can no longer ensure their preservation. At Ward Hunt Island, the presence of the ice patches for at least several centuries makes them important drivers of slope development. Sustained meltwater and sediment supplies delivered by ice patches to their pronival margin have triggered a sequence of abiotic and biotic azonal processes. This led to the formation of a biogeomorphic system, consisting of solifluction lobes and humid zones colonized by vegetation and an organic crust cover. Morphological and physical changes in the soil downslope of the ice patches influenced the surface thermal regime and thaw depths. Furthermore, our results show that the humid zone development leads to a local modification of the physical properties of snow by enhancing kinetic metamorphism responsible for the growth of a depth hoar layer at the base of the snowpack. Through a comprehensive understanding of polar ice patches and their effects, this thesis provides important empirical and conceptual advances that contribute to a better understanding of polar desert geosystem dynamics at a pivotal time when these environments are undergoing a rapid transition in response to climate change.

Le Haut-Arctique est caractérisé par de nombreux phénomènes climatiques et géomorphologiques extrêmes. Les températures très froides, les faibles précipitations et la couverture végétale disparate permettent une pénétration en profondeur du froid dans le sol. Ceci, combiné à un grand nombre de cycles de gel et de dégel, donne naissance à différentes formes de surface qui affectent les dynamiques d’évolution du pergélisol et induisent une variabilité verticale et latérale de la distribution des teneurs en glace dans le sol. Ce mémoire porte sur l’influence d’un lobe de solifluxion de type rocheux sur les dynamiques d’évolution du pergélisol sur l’île Ward Hunt, Nunavut (Canada). En utilisant une approche cryostratigraphique, les objectifs sont de caractériser la cryostratigraphie d’un lobe de solifluxion, ce qui permettra de proposer un modèle d’évolution du pergélisol en lien avec le déplacement de matériel par solifluxion. L’analyse cryostratigraphique a révélé que la formation du lobe de solifluxion a mené au développement syngénétique d’une couche de pergélisol avec une teneur en glace variant en fonction de la morphologie du lobe, et à l’enfouissement et la préservation d’un corps de glace massive préexistant en bas de pente. La succession verticale et latérale des cryofaciès fait état du déplacement du lobe et de l’impact que ce dernier a sur la variabilité spatiale et temporelle du pergélisol, et ce, tant sur les aspects d’aggradation liés à l’accumulation de matériel en surface que sur les aspects de dégradation associés aux réchauffements climatiques actuels. / The high Arctic is characterized by many extreme climatic and geomorphologic phenomena. Very cold temperatures, low precipitation and sparse vegetation cover, permit a deep penetration of cold in the soil. The latter, combined with a great number of freeze-thaw cycles, give rise to different surface features which in turn affect permafrost evolution dynamics and induce a vertical and lateral variability of the ice content distributions in the soil. This thesis focusses on the influence of a stone-banked solifluction lobe on permafrost evolution dynamics on Ward Hunt Island, Nunvut (Canada). By using a cryostratigraphic approach, the objectives are first, to characterize the cryostratigraphy of a solifluction lobe and second, to propose an evolution model of permafrost in reaction to the downslope displacement of material by solifluction. The cryostratigraphic analysis revealed that the solifluction lobes formation lead to the development of a syngenetic layer of permafrost with an ice content that varied according to the morphology of the lobe, and to the burial and preservation of a pre-existing body of massive ice at the base of the slope. The vertical and lateral sequence of the cryofacies presents the displacement of the lobe and its impact on spatial and temporal variability of the permafrost, that being, the aspects of aggradation related to the accumulation of material at the surface as well as degradation due to the actual climatic warming.

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