Manufacturing in the United States has been in a period of general decline over much of the past fifty years, though this overall pattern of de-industrialization has occurred at different times and intensities in specific geographical regions. However, local officials and development experts still focus efforts on attracting manufacturing industries into their communities, an effort often referred to as “smokestack chasing.” At the same time, environmentalism has been of increasing importance in the consciousness of American citizens. One of the central concerns of environmentalists and environmentally-oriented policy makers has been the pollution generated by these manufacturing facilities. As a result of these conflicting foci and interests, an intractable dividing line has emerged between those who view manufacturing as a source of local economic growth and employment opportunities, and those who are primarily interested in environmental quality and protection. This debate, characterized as one of “jobs versus the environment,” has been a central rhetorical frame utilized by the competing sides in both the policy and academic arenas. Numerous diverse strands of thought about these issues are synthesized into three primary theoretical perspectives, each of which purports to explain the economy-environment relationship. An assessment of the empirical relationship between economic standing, change, and environmental quality conducted using a variety of data sources and analytical techniques. Significant findings emerged which can be utilized to inform the environmental social sciences as well as policy makers and communities facing these issues.

O setor de produção de celulose mundial vem passando por mudanças significativas nas últimas décadas, principalmente no que tange à sua localização, haja vista o deslocamento de seu centro produtivo dos países desenvolvidos para os países emergentes. Dentre estes, destacam-se os da região do Cone Sul, especialmente o Brasil, o Chile e o Uruguai. O objetivo desta tese é investigar a formação de um paraíso de poluição, ou seja, a possibilidade de indústrias com elevado potencial poluidor estarem migrando para países com regulamentação ambiental supostamente mais branda. Para tanto, analisou-se a existência de diferenciais de conduta e de desempenho ambiental em dois grupos de empresas: um formado pelas empresas estrangeiras situadas na região e suas coirmãs no exterior, e outro pelas primeiras e as nacionais. Na conduta ambiental, analisaram-se as certificações ambientais, a divulgação de relatórios de sustentabilidade e, nestes, a publicação de níveis de emissão de poluentes e de investimentos direcionados ao controle da poluição e/ou de melhoria ambiental. O desempenho ambiental foi avaliado a partir dos parâmetros de emissão de poluentes no ar e na água propostos pela abordagem Best Available Techniques (BAT). Foi possível identificarem-se diferenças tênues de conduta ambiental entre as empresas estrangeiras e as nacionais, havendo, porém, diferenças importantes de desempenho. As plantas estrangeiras localizadas no Cone Sul apresentam, em geral, um desempenho ambiental superior ao das suas próprias coirmãs no exterior e ao das firmas nacionais do segmento. Como estas se diferenciam por serem plantas recentes, que começaram a operar na segunda metade de 2000, tudo indica que a tecnologia utilizada é igual, ou superior, àquela observada nos seus países de origem. Portanto, a hipótese de formação de um paraíso de poluição no Cone Sul não foi confirmada. Entretanto, há um eminente processo de efeito poluição em formação, basicamente decorrente da presença local de tantas instalações industriais de grande porte, muitas delas com capacidade produtiva instalada que excede a um milhão de toneladas/ano. / The sector of world cellulose production has undergone significant changes in recent decades, especially in regard to its location, given the displacement of its production center from developed to emerging countries. Among these countries, we highlight those of the Southern Cone, especially Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the formation of a pollution haven, that is to say, the possibility of industries with high pollution potential to be migrating to countries with supposedly more lenient environmental regulations. Therefore the existence of differential behavior and environmental performance was analyzed in two groups of companies: one formed by foreign companies located in the region and sister companies abroad, and another by the foreign companies and the national ones. As to the environmental conduct, the environmental certifications and the disclosure of sustainability reports were analyzed, and in these reports, the publication of emission levels of pollutants and investments directed to the control of pollution and / or environmental improvement. The environmental performance was evaluated from the parameters of pollutant emissions in air and water proposed by the Best Available Techniques (BAT) approach. It was possible to identify subtle environmental conduct differences between foreign and domestic enterprises, presenting, however, important differences in performance. Foreign industrial plants located in the Southern Cone show, in general, a superior environmental performance to those of their own sister companies abroad and to national firms in the sector. As these are different because they are newer plants which began operating in the second half of 2000, it seems that the technology used is equal to or higher than that observed in their countries of origin. Thus, the hypothesis of the formation of a pollution haven in the Southern Cone was not confirmed.

O setor de produção de celulose mundial vem passando por mudanças significativas nas últimas décadas, principalmente no que tange à sua localização, haja vista o deslocamento de seu centro produtivo dos países desenvolvidos para os países emergentes. Dentre estes, destacam-se os da região do Cone Sul, especialmente o Brasil, o Chile e o Uruguai. O objetivo desta tese é investigar a formação de um paraíso de poluição, ou seja, a possibilidade de indústrias com elevado potencial poluidor estarem migrando para países com regulamentação ambiental supostamente mais branda. Para tanto, analisou-se a existência de diferenciais de conduta e de desempenho ambiental em dois grupos de empresas: um formado pelas empresas estrangeiras situadas na região e suas coirmãs no exterior, e outro pelas primeiras e as nacionais. Na conduta ambiental, analisaram-se as certificações ambientais, a divulgação de relatórios de sustentabilidade e, nestes, a publicação de níveis de emissão de poluentes e de investimentos direcionados ao controle da poluição e/ou de melhoria ambiental. O desempenho ambiental foi avaliado a partir dos parâmetros de emissão de poluentes no ar e na água propostos pela abordagem Best Available Techniques (BAT). Foi possível identificarem-se diferenças tênues de conduta ambiental entre as empresas estrangeiras e as nacionais, havendo, porém, diferenças importantes de desempenho. As plantas estrangeiras localizadas no Cone Sul apresentam, em geral, um desempenho ambiental superior ao das suas próprias coirmãs no exterior e ao das firmas nacionais do segmento. Como estas se diferenciam por serem plantas recentes, que começaram a operar na segunda metade de 2000, tudo indica que a tecnologia utilizada é igual, ou superior, àquela observada nos seus países de origem. Portanto, a hipótese de formação de um paraíso de poluição no Cone Sul não foi confirmada. Entretanto, há um eminente processo de efeito poluição em formação, basicamente decorrente da presença local de tantas instalações industriais de grande porte, muitas delas com capacidade produtiva instalada que excede a um milhão de toneladas/ano. / The sector of world cellulose production has undergone significant changes in recent decades, especially in regard to its location, given the displacement of its production center from developed to emerging countries. Among these countries, we highlight those of the Southern Cone, especially Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the formation of a pollution haven, that is to say, the possibility of industries with high pollution potential to be migrating to countries with supposedly more lenient environmental regulations. Therefore the existence of differential behavior and environmental performance was analyzed in two groups of companies: one formed by foreign companies located in the region and sister companies abroad, and another by the foreign companies and the national ones. As to the environmental conduct, the environmental certifications and the disclosure of sustainability reports were analyzed, and in these reports, the publication of emission levels of pollutants and investments directed to the control of pollution and / or environmental improvement. The environmental performance was evaluated from the parameters of pollutant emissions in air and water proposed by the Best Available Techniques (BAT) approach. It was possible to identify subtle environmental conduct differences between foreign and domestic enterprises, presenting, however, important differences in performance. Foreign industrial plants located in the Southern Cone show, in general, a superior environmental performance to those of their own sister companies abroad and to national firms in the sector. As these are different because they are newer plants which began operating in the second half of 2000, it seems that the technology used is equal to or higher than that observed in their countries of origin. Thus, the hypothesis of the formation of a pollution haven in the Southern Cone was not confirmed.

O setor de produção de celulose mundial vem passando por mudanças significativas nas últimas décadas, principalmente no que tange à sua localização, haja vista o deslocamento de seu centro produtivo dos países desenvolvidos para os países emergentes. Dentre estes, destacam-se os da região do Cone Sul, especialmente o Brasil, o Chile e o Uruguai. O objetivo desta tese é investigar a formação de um paraíso de poluição, ou seja, a possibilidade de indústrias com elevado potencial poluidor estarem migrando para países com regulamentação ambiental supostamente mais branda. Para tanto, analisou-se a existência de diferenciais de conduta e de desempenho ambiental em dois grupos de empresas: um formado pelas empresas estrangeiras situadas na região e suas coirmãs no exterior, e outro pelas primeiras e as nacionais. Na conduta ambiental, analisaram-se as certificações ambientais, a divulgação de relatórios de sustentabilidade e, nestes, a publicação de níveis de emissão de poluentes e de investimentos direcionados ao controle da poluição e/ou de melhoria ambiental. O desempenho ambiental foi avaliado a partir dos parâmetros de emissão de poluentes no ar e na água propostos pela abordagem Best Available Techniques (BAT). Foi possível identificarem-se diferenças tênues de conduta ambiental entre as empresas estrangeiras e as nacionais, havendo, porém, diferenças importantes de desempenho. As plantas estrangeiras localizadas no Cone Sul apresentam, em geral, um desempenho ambiental superior ao das suas próprias coirmãs no exterior e ao das firmas nacionais do segmento. Como estas se diferenciam por serem plantas recentes, que começaram a operar na segunda metade de 2000, tudo indica que a tecnologia utilizada é igual, ou superior, àquela observada nos seus países de origem. Portanto, a hipótese de formação de um paraíso de poluição no Cone Sul não foi confirmada. Entretanto, há um eminente processo de efeito poluição em formação, basicamente decorrente da presença local de tantas instalações industriais de grande porte, muitas delas com capacidade produtiva instalada que excede a um milhão de toneladas/ano. / The sector of world cellulose production has undergone significant changes in recent decades, especially in regard to its location, given the displacement of its production center from developed to emerging countries. Among these countries, we highlight those of the Southern Cone, especially Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the formation of a pollution haven, that is to say, the possibility of industries with high pollution potential to be migrating to countries with supposedly more lenient environmental regulations. Therefore the existence of differential behavior and environmental performance was analyzed in two groups of companies: one formed by foreign companies located in the region and sister companies abroad, and another by the foreign companies and the national ones. As to the environmental conduct, the environmental certifications and the disclosure of sustainability reports were analyzed, and in these reports, the publication of emission levels of pollutants and investments directed to the control of pollution and / or environmental improvement. The environmental performance was evaluated from the parameters of pollutant emissions in air and water proposed by the Best Available Techniques (BAT) approach. It was possible to identify subtle environmental conduct differences between foreign and domestic enterprises, presenting, however, important differences in performance. Foreign industrial plants located in the Southern Cone show, in general, a superior environmental performance to those of their own sister companies abroad and to national firms in the sector. As these are different because they are newer plants which began operating in the second half of 2000, it seems that the technology used is equal to or higher than that observed in their countries of origin. Thus, the hypothesis of the formation of a pollution haven in the Southern Cone was not confirmed.

L’objectif fondamental de cette thèse consistait, après avoir relevé la complexité du lien entre l’économie et l’environnement, à mettre en évidence d’une part, les différents travaux et analyses sur la théorie des havres de pollution ainsi que les théories concurrentes et d’autre part, à apporter une contribution empirique à cette théorie. Ainsi, en évaluant empiriquement l’attractivité de l’Amérique latine et de l’Europe pour les entreprises manufacturières espagnoles appartenant auxsecteurs réputés polluants, on s’est évertué à montrer que les déterminants de cet attrait vers ces deux régions ne suivent pas la même trajectoire. Pour ce faire, nous utilisons un modèle gravitaire développé au moyen de l’économétrie des données de panel. C’est autour de ces points centraux que se sont articulés les quatre chapitres de notre thèse. Nos résultats valident l’existence d’effets de havres de pollution en Amérique latine, renforçant ainsi les conclusions tirées par les défenseurs de cette théorie. Ainsi, les localisations des industries polluantes espagnoles dans cetterégion sont déterminées par la présence simultanée des économies d’agglomération, d’une main d’oeuvre qualifiée et un engagement environnemental faible conjugué à un climat institutionnel douteux caractérisé par une présence massive de l’Etat dans l’économie et une banalisation de la corruption. Il convient de préciser que cette présence espagnole semble moins concernée par les libertés politiques et civiles dans la région, par les niveaux d’imposition et par la taille du marché domestique. Concernant la présence espagnole dans les pays européens, ce sont plutôt lesstratégies horizontales qui paraissent dominer les politiques d’internationalisation des entreprises polluantes espagnoles. Ces dernières semblent prêter bien plus d’attention à des facteurs tels que la qualité de la main-d’oeuvre, la performance des infrastructures, les économies d’agglomération et l’accès au marché qu’à la sévérité de la politique environnementale locale. / We have plotted a complex link between Economy and Environment, consequently we could determined the main objective of this thesis which was on one hand to highlight various papers and studies about the theory of contamination havens and about others competitive theories, and on another hand, to propose an empirical contribution to these theories. Thus, by evaluating the attractiveness of Latin America and Europe for Spanish manufacturing corporations involved in sectors known as contaminated, we focused on the fact that the determinants of this attract to both regions don’t follow the same way. In order to fulfill this specific study, we have used a gravity model developed using econometric panel data. Indeed, we have built our four main chapters of the thesis around these major points. The results obtained can argue that effects of contamination havens effectively exist in Latin America, strengthening conclusions put out by the defenders of this theory. Moreover, the place where are located Spanish contaminating manufacturing in thisregion are determined by the existence of agglomeration economies, skilled labor market, a weak engagement in environment issues united to a high level of corruption governmental institutions.In consequence, we can add that the Spanish government in this zone feels less concerned by the quality of way of life and liberty of citizens than by levels of taxes and size of domestic market. Concerning the Spanish implementation of strategies in these Europeans countries, the most relevant are horizontal strategies which seem to dominate internationalization process in Spanish contaminating manufacturing. These ones seem to pay attention to the quality of skilled labor forces, strength of infrastructure, agglomeration economies and access to the market more than the control of environmental local policies.