Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Contextual stressors that are associated with living in low-income communities have an adverse impact on the mental health of adolescents. International studies indicate that this outcome is influenced by the presence of factors that may buffer the impact of stressors, or which may increase adolescents' vulnerability to experiencing stress. The present study was aimed at exploring the factors that influence the mental health of 173 school-going adolescents residing in low-income communities in the Western Cape. By using a quantitative method with a correlational design, the research explored the relationship between depression (measured on the Beck Depression Inventory - Second Edition) and the following factors respectively: self-esteem (measured on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale), coping strategies (measured on the Coping Strategies Indicator), perceived social support (measured on the Social Support Appraisals Scale) and resilience (measured on the Resilience Scale for Adolescents). Results of the correlational analyses indicated that high self-esteem, higher use of the problem-solving coping strategy, stronger perceived social support and higher resilience were significantly related to decreased levels of depression. In contrast, higher use of the avoidant coping strategy was significantly related to higher levels of depression. These results indicate that while some factors may buffer the impact of perceived contextual stressors on adolescents' mental health (for example, problem-solving coping, stronger perceived social support and resilience), other factors may increase adolescents' vulnerability to experiencing depression (for example, avoidant coping). These results may inform interventions focused on promoting mental health or preventing incidence of depression in adolescents living in low-income communities. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kontekstuele stressors wat geassosieer word met ʼn bestaan in lae-inkomstegemeenskappe het ʼn nadelige impak op die geestesgesondheid van adolessente. Internasionale studies dui daarop dat hierdie resultaat beïnvloed word deur die teenwoordigheid van faktore wat die impak van stressors kan versag of adolessente se kwesbaarheid vir stres kan verhoog. Die huidige studie is daarop gemik om ondersoek in te stel na die faktore wat die geestesgesondheid van 173 skoolgaande adolessente, wat in lae-inkomstegemeenskappe in die Wes-Kaap woon, beïnvloed. Deur ʼn kwantitatiewe metode met ʼn korrelasionele ontwerp te gebruik, het die studie ondersoek ingestel na die verhouding tussen depressie (bepaal volgens die Beck-depressie-inventaris-Tweede uitgawe [Beck Depression Inventory - Second Edition]) en die volgende faktore: selfagting (bepaal volgens die Rosenberg-selfagtingskaal [Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale]), hanteringstrategieë (bepaal volgens die hanteringstrategie-aanduider [Coping Strategies Indicator]), waarneembare sosiale ondersteuning (bepaal volgens die sosiale-ondersteuningstakseringskaal [Social Support Appraisals Scale]) en geeskragtigheid (bepaal volgens die geesteskragtigheidskaal vir adolessente [Resilience Scale for Adolescents]). Die resultate van die korrelasionele ontleding dui daarop dat hoë selfagtingsvlakke, ʼn toename in die gebruik van probleemoplossingstrategieë vir die hantering van situasies, beter waarneembare sosiale steun en hoër geeskragtigheidsvlakke ʼn beduidende verwantskap toon met ʼn afname in depressievlakke. In teenstelling hiermee was daar ʼn opvallende verband tussen vermydingsgedragstrategieë en hoër depressievlakke. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat hoewel sommige faktore die impak van waarneembare kontekstuele stressors op die geestesgesondheid van adolessente kan versag (byvoorbeeld probleemoplossingstrategieë vir die hantering van situasies, beter waarneembare sosiale steun en geeskragtigheid), ander faktore die adolessente se kwesbaarheid vir depressie kan verhoog (byvoorbeeld vermydingsgedragstrategieë). Hierdie resultate kan moontlik ʼn bydrae lewer tot ingrypings wat gemik is op die verbetering van geestesgesondheid of op die voorkoming van die voorkoms van depressie by adolessente wat in lae-inkomstegemeenskappe leef.

Thesis (MEd)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Western Cape Education Department (WCED) put many interventions in place to provide quality education to all schools, but barriers still remained in low-income communities. Most barriers developed due to inadequate resources such as: poor teacher training, lack of community involvement, lack of transportation, poor service delivery and sustainability within the community. Numerous communities suffered discrimination in the form of unjust distribution of social benefits and resources. The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), however, expects all learners to follow the same curriculum and achieve the same type of quality education. This is impossible when schools have inadequate resources. The aim of the research was therefore to explore how teachers understood the concept of quality education through their lived experiences at a low-income school. This exploration took into account what teachers viewed as contributing to or hindering a quality education, both at personal and interpersonal levels in the school. It also considered how the school system, the WCED and the social environment contributed to positive or negative outcomes regarding quality. This was important as teachers were seen as the key agents towards change in quality education. Social constructionism and a social justice approach provided the foundation of this research and enabled the voices of previously disadvantaged communities to be heard. In keeping with the theoretical frameworks of the study, a qualitative, interpretivist research approach was used. Participants were selected through purposive sampling and focus group discussions as well as individual interviews were used to generate data. Digital audio recordings were made of the group and individual sessions, which were then transcribed. The data collected in this study were analysed through thematic analysis. The research findings indicated that teachers experienced numerous barriers with regards to contextual factors and unjust distribution of resources. Furthermore, teachers reflected that with good pedagogy they were able to maintain quality education, by teaching a curriculum that was relevant to the context of the learner, even when resources were limited. This process was very time-consuming and not cost-effective. However, even though teachers were able to recognise the barriers present in their school they insisted that there were many positive aspects to working in a low-income school. These findings led to recommendations that were centred largely on meeting some of the support needs of teachers in low-income communities. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Wes-Kaapse Onderwysdepartement (WKOD) het baie intervensies in plek gestel om gehalte-onderrig te verskaf aan alle skole, maar baie hindernisse was steeds teenwoordig in lae-inkomste gemeenskappe. Baie van die hindernisse het ontstaan as gevolg van onvoldoende hulpbronne soos: swak onderwysopleiding, gebrekkige gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid, onvoldoende vervoer, swak dienslewering en volhoubaarheid in die gemeenskap. Daar was teen talle gemeenskappe gediskrimineer in terme van ongelyke verspreiding van sosiale voordele en hulpbronne. Die Kurrikulum- en Assesseringsbeleidsverklaring (KABV) verwag egter dat alle leerders dieselfde kurrikulum volg en dieselfde tipe gehalte-onderrig behaal. Dit is onmoontlik om te bereik indien skole onvoldoende hulpbronne het. Die doel van die navorsing was dus om onderwysers se konsep van gehalte-onderrig te verstaan deur hulle beleefde ervaring in ʼn lae-inkomste skool te ondersoek. Die ondersoek het in ag geneem wat onderwysers beskou het as ʼn bydrae of ʼn hindernis tot gehalte-onderrig, op sowel persoonlike as interpersoonlike vlak in die skool. Daar is ook gelet op watter positiewe of negatiewe invloede die skoolsisteem, die WKOD en die sosiale omgewing op gehalte-onderrig het. Dit word as belangrik geag omdat onderwysers gesien word as die belangrikste agente vir verandering in gehalte-onderwys. Sosiale konstruksionisme en ʼn sosiale geregtigheidsbenadering is die grondslag van hierdie navorsing en stel die stemme van voorheen benadeelde gemeenskappe in staat om gehoor te word. In ooreenstemming met die teoretiese raamwerke van die studie is ʼn kwalitatiewe, interpretivistiese navorsingsbenadering gebruik. Die deelnemers is deur middel van doelgerigte steekproeftrekking geselekteer en fokusgroepbesprekings en individuele onderhoude is gebruik om data te genereer. Digitale klankopnames is gemaak van die groep- en individuele sessies, wat toe getranskribeer is. Die data wat in hierdie studie ingesamel is, is ontleed deur middel van tematiese analise. Die navorsing het aangedui dat onderwysers talle struikelblokke ondervind het met betrekking tot kontekstuele faktore en onregverdige verspreiding van hulpbronne. Verder het onderwysers weerspieël dat hulle met goeie pedagogie in staat was om gehalte-onderwys te beoefen deur die kurrikulum binne die konteks van die leerder te onderrig, selfs wanneer hulpbronne beperk was. Hierdie proses het egter baie tyd in beslag geneem en was nie koste-effektief nie. Selfs al was onderwysers in staat om die struikelblokke in hul skool te herken, het hulle steeds die positiewe aspekte van werk in ʼn lae-inkomste skool uitgelig. Hierdie bevindinge het gelei tot aanbevelings wat grootliks handel oor ondersteuning van die onderwysers in lae-inkomste gemeenskappe deur vervulling van hulle behoeftes.

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Government and Public Administration

The new democratic government in South Africa introduced an education system that focused on quality and equality for all. The introduction of the new education system intended to remove inequality in the schooling system. The new education system was been accomplished through phasing out school fees and introducing a no-fee school policy. The aim of the no-fee school policy was to redress the imbalances of the past and to attract the poor and orphans to access education without paying mandatory fees (Wilderman, 2009:32). The no-fee policy came with interesting ideas for relieving pressure on both parents and learners. It attracted many learners who had dropped out of school in many years. This led to a dramatic increase of enrolment in no-fee schools. However, Borkum (2009:1) sees the disadvantages of the increased enrolment as overcrowding that reduces the quality of education, increases lawlessness in schools, and insufficient resources such as textbooks. The major challenges faced by these schools is the delay in releasing provincial funds, inadequate state funding, and loss of income from school funding. These make no-fee schools vulnerable, affecting quality of education and influences on the enrolment pattern of learners (Nsapato, 2007:2). Against this background, the study aimed to investigate factors influencing poor enrolment in a no-fee school in the foundation phase and to suggest strategies that could be used to overcome these challenges. The study adopted a qualitative research method and its design was a case study. Four educators were purposeful selected on the basis of three years teaching experience in a no-fee school in the foundation phase. Data collection strategies were semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Data analysis was done according to a systematic process of coding and categorising. Gathered data was categorised into constituent parts for coding purposes. Ethical issues considered were the following: permission to conduct the study, informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity. Participants’ confidentiality and anonymity were maintained by using pseudonyms in the report. The voluntary nature of participation and the absence of punishment for withdrawal from the study were emphasised prior to commencement of the semi-structured interviews. The issue of trustworthiness in this study was considered through the following: credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. The data analysis from semi-structured interview revealed the following: the no-fee school policy has a negative impact on parents because parents were no longer involved themselves in the education of their children. The overburdened infrastructure has a negative effect on quality of education and the enrolment status, deterioration of quality of education in no-fee schools force parents to withdraw their children and register them to better schools, cooperation amongst stakeholders is necessary for the improvement of quality of education, teachers’ remuneration should also be improved and the maintenance of professionalism through discipline. Findings from document analysis revealed that poor enrolment in no fee school was caused by high rate of absenteeism in all registers. This compelled educators to withdrew learners’ from class registers hence poor enrolment figures in no fee schools. Staff meeting minutes revealed that enrolment of learners in no-fee schools could be improved through improvement of teaching and learning and the provision of adequate infrastructure and the reinforcement of the no-fee school policy packages such as the National School Nutrition Program in order to attract more vulnerable learners to these schools. Based on the findings, the following strategies are recommended for improving poor enrolment in no-fee schools: strengthening collaboration amongst the stakeholders in education; maintenance of discipline; enforcement of professionalism among teachers; continuous training of all stakeholders; and punctual disbursement of funds to no-fee schools. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Education Management)

Recently, a great deal of interest has been generated around the role of principal and its effectiveness, especially its impact on improving teacher instruction and student learning. Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) concluded that one quarter of all "school effects" on achievement can be attributed to principals. While there is general agreement on the principal's importance and affect, do we understand how principals have adapted to changes in schools with reduced resources and increased learning needs of students? How have principals made decisions in an environment where resources have been reduced over time? Given the stories of retired principals from high poverty elementary schools, the purpose of this narrative inquiry is to understand how principals made sense of their experience when having to respond to decreasing resources and the need for increased student achievement. Participants in the study included retired principals from high poverty elementary schools who were employed during the time period extending from 2008 through 2014. Findings from the study make sense of the meanings elementary principals have constructed and attached to the phenomena of decision -making in times of financial reduction in order to help other principals who have been challenged by similar circumstances. Three categories of leadership styles and seven skill areas emerged in the study. Principals made use of these styles and skills in their responses to the crisis.

The Moving to Opportunity (MTO) randomized housing experiment was designed to evaluate the causal effects of random voucher assignment on the economic outcomes of adults and the educational outcomes of their children. MTO recruited predominantly non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic families living in public housing in neighborhoods with over 40% poverty and, in most cases, racial/ethnic minority concentration of 80% or more. Post hoc, MTO also examined the effect of voucher receipt on the long-term mental health outcomes among adolescents and, generally, found harmful effects among boys, but protective effects among girls. On average, voucher receipt led to residing in more affluent, and slightly less racially and ethnically segregated neighborhoods. These neighborhood differences could have led to greater exposure to perceived racial/ethnic and class discrimination among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic adolescents from high-poverty neighborhoods, which, in turn, may have affected their mental health, with a stronger harmful effect among boys than girls. A prior qualitative study found that compared to no voucher, boys whose families moved with a voucher reported more instances of racial and class discrimination in the new neighborhoods. However, girls whose families moved with a voucher did not report more instances of discrimination than girls whose families did not receive a voucher. In addition, Black and Hispanic boys have been shown to be more sensitive to differences in affluence between themselves and their neighbors than girls. For example, low-income boys, but not girls, living alongside more affluent neighbors exhibited more antisocial behavior compared to their peers who lived alongside low-income neighbors. Examining whether aspects of neighborhood poverty and racial/ethnic composition, which may be associated with class and racial/ethnic discrimination, are mechanisms behind the unintended consequences of Section 8 housing voucher receipt may inform more nuanced housing policy decisions. Identifying the pathways for the unintended harmful effects on the mental health of boys may help policymakers distribute housing subsidies in a way that is beneficial to all family members. To examine the potential pathway for the surprising findings in the MTO, I completed three specific aims in this dissertation: a systematic literature review and two empirical aims. First, I conducted a systematic literature review to examine the evidence that sex moderates the established association between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and mental health outcomes in Black and Hispanic preadolescents to young adults. Second, I estimated the effect of Section 8 voucher receipt on perceived individual-level racial/ethnic discrimination, stratifying analyses by the selected effect modifiers (e.g., voucher type, sex, and/or city). Third, I estimated the indirect effects of voucher receipt on the risk of long-term mental health outcomes among adolescents through neighborhood affluence and racial/ethnic composition, stratifying by sex. The results of the systematic literature review suggest that, among pre-adolescents to young adults, there was no strong evidence to support the moderating effect of sex on the association between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and depressive symptoms or behavioral problems. However, the review found support for the moderating role of sex on the association between perceived discrimination and the outcomes of anxiety and PTSD. In the first empirical study, I found that Low Poverty Voucher (LPV) receipt reduced the risk of perceived racial/ethnic discrimination by police among boys only. In Los Angeles, receipt of LPV and, separately, Traditional Voucher (TRV) receipt reduced the risk of perceived school and neighborhood discrimination, respectively. In contrast, in Chicago, TRV receipt increased the risk of perceived discrimination at a store or at a restaurant. Voucher receipt did not have an estimated effect on the risk of perceived racial/ethnic discrimination in Boston or New York. In the second empirical study, among boys, part of the estimated harmful effect of voucher receipt (LPV and TRV combined) on the risk of externalizing disorders was mitigated by a bundle of mediators, which included residing in neighborhoods with less than 20% poverty, more college graduates, and slightly less racial/ethnic segregation over the duration of follow-up. However, the same bundle of mediators explained part of the harmful effect of voucher receipt on the risk of mood disorders among boys. Among girls, part of the protective effect of voucher receipt on externalizing disorders and mood disorders operated through this bundle of mediators. I utilized causal inference methods (i.e., calculated average treatment effect) to estimate the effect of Section 8 housing vouchers on perceived racial/ethnic discrimination in Chapter 3, as well as their indirect effect, through neighborhood affluence and racial/ethnic composition, on long-term adolescent mental health outcomes in Chapter 4. Overall, the findings of this dissertation suggest that there is heterogeneity in the effect of perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and Section 8 voucher receipt on adolescent mental health outcomes. Furthermore, such effects vary depending on the mental health outcome. For example, among boys, the harmful effect of voucher receipt partially operated through the bundle of mediators on mood disorders, but the same mediators had a protective effect on externalizing disorders. Additional research is needed into the causes of these heterogeneous indirect effects on mental health outcomes among boys. Future housing interventions should consider utilizing this information to avoid harming the subgroups they intend to aid.

A child's early years are vital for development. The first few years of life is a period of rapid physical, mental, emotional, social and moral growth and development. This is a time when young children acquire concepts, skills and attitudes that lay the foundation for lifelong learning. During this time, parents are the primary influence on a child’s development and learning. The more parents are involved with their children, the more positive learning and general life outcomes occur. Different factors have been linked to children’s readiness to learn as they enter school. These include family characteristics such as the income level of the child’s household, parent education, and family structure. Other experiences in the home and community also linked to children’s readiness to learn include the quality of their relationships with parents, educational activities at home, and opportunities to participate in recreational or educational activities. Research has shown that poverty in early childhood can prove to be a handicap for life. Studies have revealed that many children under the age of five, living in poverty, annually fail to reach their full cognitive and social potential and do not have the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude to engage effectively in formal schooling once entering Grade 1. In the light of this, parents are in a key position to establish a suitable environment and to provide experiences during the early childhood years, whereby their young children can grow and develop to reach their fullest potential. This study is aimed to determine the way parents from disadvantaged backgrounds perceive their role, in their children’s early development and preparation for school. A selected group of parents of preschool children from disadvantaged communities in an area northeast of Tshwane participated in focus group discussions. Through the information obtained from the study, crucial limitations and needs regarding parenting and school preparation were identified. Based on these findings, the necessity for an effective and helpful parental guidance and intervention programme for these disadvantaged communities were recognized. If parents become more knowledgeable about early childhood development and school readiness, by expanding and improving their parenting skills, they might largely improve the development and learning abilities of their preschool children. It is therefore recommended that this study forms the foundation in the development of an intervention programme, which addresses the needs of these parents and provides support to equip them in their roles, in preparing their preschool children for school. / Early Childhood Education and Development

A child's early years are vital for development. The first few years of life is a period of rapid physical, mental, emotional, social and moral growth and development. This is a time when young children acquire concepts, skills and attitudes that lay the foundation for lifelong learning. During this time, parents are the primary influence on a child’s development and learning. The more parents are involved with their children, the more positive learning and general life outcomes occur. Different factors have been linked to children’s readiness to learn as they enter school. These include family characteristics such as the income level of the child’s household, parent education, and family structure. Other experiences in the home and community also linked to children’s readiness to learn include the quality of their relationships with parents, educational activities at home, and opportunities to participate in recreational or educational activities. Research has shown that poverty in early childhood can prove to be a handicap for life. Studies have revealed that many children under the age of five, living in poverty, annually fail to reach their full cognitive and social potential and do not have the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude to engage effectively in formal schooling once entering Grade 1. In the light of this, parents are in a key position to establish a suitable environment and to provide experiences during the early childhood years, whereby their young children can grow and develop to reach their fullest potential. This study is aimed to determine the way parents from disadvantaged backgrounds perceive their role, in their children’s early development and preparation for school. A selected group of parents of preschool children from disadvantaged communities in an area northeast of Tshwane participated in focus group discussions. Through the information obtained from the study, crucial limitations and needs regarding parenting and school preparation were identified. Based on these findings, the necessity for an effective and helpful parental guidance and intervention programme for these disadvantaged communities were recognized. If parents become more knowledgeable about early childhood development and school readiness, by expanding and improving their parenting skills, they might largely improve the development and learning abilities of their preschool children. It is therefore recommended that this study forms the foundation in the development of an intervention programme, which addresses the needs of these parents and provides support to equip them in their roles, in preparing their preschool children for school. / Early Childhood Education and Development / M. Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Counselling)

The focus of this dissertation is on exploring the needs of and services provided to orphaned and vulnerable children (OVCs) in Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal. This research is based on the findings from in-depth face-to-face interviews, and the focus group discussion conducted with key informants and primary caregivers of OVCs, respectively. The findings underline that although the needs of OVCs are similar to those of all other children, OVCs face unique challenges. It further shows that the government of South Africa has been responsive in developing relevant legislation, policies, and programmes that attempt to address the needs of OVCs. The findings also revealed that the services provided are coordinated, to a limited extent, through the Flagship Project led by the office of the Premier and. that coordination and integration of activities rendered by various stakeholders is crucial to a positive impact, and in increasing the accessibility of these services. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)

The focus of this dissertation is on exploring the needs of and services provided to orphaned and vulnerable children (OVCs) in Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal. This research is based on the findings from in-depth face-to-face interviews, and the focus group discussion conducted with key informants and primary caregivers of OVCs, respectively. The findings underline that although the needs of OVCs are similar to those of all other children, OVCs face unique challenges. It further shows that the government of South Africa has been responsive in developing relevant legislation, policies, and programmes that attempt to address the needs of OVCs. The findings also revealed that the services provided are coordinated, to a limited extent, through the Flagship Project led by the office of the Premier and. that coordination and integration of activities rendered by various stakeholders is crucial to a positive impact, and in increasing the accessibility of these services. / Social Work / M. A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)