M.A. (Psychology) / This study regarding the long-term effects of the Westdene bus-disaster which was undertaken after a period of seven years, had the following objectives: (1) A literature survey regarding the theory of disaster psychology; (2) An investigation of the long-term effects of traumatic events in the primary victims of the Westdene bus-disaster; (3) A survey to establish the long-term effects of therapeutic inputs in the primary victims. The first part of this study is devoted to a theoretical investigation which gives an overview of the Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome. Since the concept of stress is essential to the understanding of this syndrome, it is also closely examined. The conclusion was reached that the concept of stress and how stress is measured should be reconsidered. Stress should be seen as a contextual phenomenon and not just physioloqical and intra-psychological one. The specific types of disasters are also examined in the literature survey. The way in which children and adolescents experience stress differently to adults is also discussed. This is largely due to the dynamic processes involved during development which allows them (within the context of supportive systems) to absorb elements of healing faster and more effectively. The processes involved in development are also discussed in the literature survey. Research was done mainly in a qualitative way. The results of the research suggest that the experiencing of serious trauma by adolescents negatively influence the process of becoming independent and forming of an identity. This appears to be a function of the adolescent's in ability to separate from his/her family of origin and/or the inability of the family of origin to allow the adolescent to become independent. It further appears that the presence of PTSS in victims of a traumatic event is not a linear matter which follows automatically after exposure to a certain amount of stressful events. There appear to be other factors that play a causal role in the extent to which the victim experiences " events as stressful or not. These factors operate as "mediating factors" with regards to the victim's experience of an event as stressful or not. Such factors include social networks and whether vicitim's experience events as ideologically meaningful or not. With regards to psychological help/therapy and the long-term effects of such interventions, the researcher came to the conclusion that developmental processes in interaction with a supportive psychological climate can be a powerful antidote for the experiencing of PTSS symptoms in the long-term. Criticism against this study is that due to the long lapse of time between the taking place of the disaster and the of the study factors other than the disaster maybe responsible for the current functioning of the primary victims,as well as the fact that the group used for research purposes was to a degree self-selective.

D.Litt. et Phil. / The objective of this study was to describe, apply and evaluate the effect of an integrated Ericksonian and ego state therapy intervention approach for the treatment of adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Sexual abuse rips away an invaluable inner resource from the victim and this needs to be restored during the healing process. Every adult survivor presents a unique pattern of symptoms and effects of having experienced childhood sexual abuse. Therefore, it was necessary to plan an intervention strategy individualised according to each sexually abused person's unique experience. Therapeutic models and approaches developed to assist in the treatment of adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse are available but not always comprehensive and often not evaluated. Thus, evaluated studies that determine the effectiveness of distinct strategies and procedures for treating sexual abuse, are required. Psychological research regarding sexual abuse has tended to focus on aspects related to pathology. This study aimed to explore the possibilities for treatment plans for sexually abused individuals from the salutogenic/fortigenic perspective. This focus emphasises the promotion of strengths, well-being and wholeness. Accordingly, both the Ericksonian and ego state therapy approaches acknowledge the existence of resources within an individual, and therefore focus on the utilisation and mobilisation of strengths and resources during psychotherapy. In 2002, Hartman integrated these two approaches and proposed the Utilisation Model of Ego State Therapy, which included principles of the SARI Model (Frederick & McNeal, 1999; Phillips & Frederick, 11 1995), which was primarily developed for the treatment of trauma and dissociative disorders. Therefore, this study described, applied and evaluated the application of the Utilisation Model of Ego State Therapy as a broad and integrated approach for intervention with adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse.

M.A. (Psychology) / Youth and children constitute seventy percent of the population in South Africa. It is these children who carry the potential for the future of our nation. They may be precluded from reaching their potential jf we do not urgently address the problems brought about by violence. Highly evident is the increased incidence of PTSD within the violence stricken communities in South Africa. PTSD among black youths is so high that it can be described as an epidemic. Due to the limited therapeutic resources available, it is imperative that a programme ofaction aimed atreducing the negative impact which PTSD has and continues to have on children is designed. Thus, following adiligent study of the literature, it was decided to train lay counsellors I volunteers in terms of a previously devised Cognitive Behavioural Group intervention formulated by Cowley, Hetz and Rosin (1994) in order to reach out to these children who have been so aversively affected by violence. Utilising the services of lay counsellors rather than professionals is cost effective and time effective. A large sample of PTSD positive subjects were selected from three different schools on the basis that they satisfied the DSM IV criteria for PTSD. The subjects participated in a six week intervention programme. A large number of lay counsellors were trained and selected to facilitate the intervention programme. The administration of the intervention by the lay counsellors did not alter the effectiveness of the Cognitive Behavioural intervention. The results obtained were in accordance with those obtained by Cowley et al.,(1994) in the paired sample tests which were deemed appropriate for this kind of research.

M.A. / The purpose of this research study is to explore and identify a knowledge contents base needed for the development of a competency-based stress-coping program for traumatized adolescents. The aim of a competency-based stress-coping program is to address the inadequacy of the traumatized adolescent to cope with stress, and the need to channel their inability to cope with stress, thus enabling them to channel stress adequately. To accomplish this aim, an in-depth study is made into the competency-based approach, as well as the exploration of stress and traumatized adolescents. The research process of Mouton and Marais (1991) is followed and four data collection methods are utilized in the study. The research process is initiated by a literature study and is supplemented by (a) semi-structured interviews with experts in the field of Competency Based Training; (b) the use of a focusgroup with social workers in practice with traumatized adolescents and (c) group-administered questionnaires completed by traumatized adolescents receiving social work services. The study is not conducted and tested on a large scale due to the qualitative research undertaken. Data collected is analyzed by inductive reasoning and the processing of data through the utilization of the SPPC computer program which is used for the questionnaires completed in this study. Results show that a prerequisite for the utilization of the Competency-Based Approach entails the preliminary training of presenters of programs based upon this approach. Furthermore adolescents need to have certain intellectual and emotional abilities at their disposal which enables them to participate in a program based upon the Competency Based approach. Results show that traumatized adolescents who participated in this study have been exposed to a number of stress factors, mainly related to the relationships they are involved in, and indicate a need to participate in a stress-coping program. In a competency based stress coping program for adolescents it is necessary to identify between the cognitive outcomes and the behaviour or social outcomes that are intended.

M.A. (Psychology) / Human suffering and death are an intrinsic part of the work of emergency response personnel. Emergency workers are not immune to the stresses of emergency situations, and it is therefore understandable that those dealing with the critically ill or injured will experience feelings like anger, anxiety and sadness. Gibbs, Drummond and Lachenmeyer (1993) cite some characteristic responses ofemergency workers in their reaction to the daily experience oftrauma. These responses include increased anxiety, tension and feelings of distress, and cognitive deficiencies. Physical symptoms and the abuse of alcohol are also common. Despite the considerable body of knowledge regarding stress in emergency workers, most intervention strategies to alleviate the long-term consequences of mental trauma on these workers have been prophylactic in terms of future service. Little has been done to validate such efforts (Dunning, 1990). Within the South African context research in this field is also scant, yet the overwhelming evidence ofthe reactions cited in research (Hetherington, 1993a; Gibbs et al, 1993; Mitchell, 1985, 1982, 1984b; Sparrius, 1992 and Mitchell and Bray, 1990), both local and international, would indicate that such reactions exist in South Africa and should therefore be extensively investigated. It would therefore be necessary to implement an intervention programme for this group and systematically evaluate it. However, the nature of PTSD on its own, and how it relates to the emergency worker needs to be discussed...

Currently some confusion exists as to how health professionals should best respond to the psychological needs of those affected by disasters. Some have argued that early psychological intervention is essential and others have argued that early formal psychological interventions have no useful role in post trauma response. This study highlights the importance of considering both counselling and non-counselling factors as potentially influencing the psychosocial response of disaster victims. Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is not the only mental disorder that can develop as a result of exposure to disasters, it is probably the most frequent and debilitating psychological disorder associated with traumatic stress. In this exploratorydescriptive study the researcher aimed to explore and describe psychologists’ perceived influences of early strategies on the psychosocial response to those affected by disaster. The researcher used non-probability snowball sampling to access participants. The sample consisted of 5 participants. Semi structured interviews were conducted. Content analysis was used to analyse the data obtained from interviews. Results that emerged from the data suggest that there are many factors that influence the psychosocial response to those affected by disasters. These factors include the screening process, needs of survivors, the method of choice for treatment, the timing of intervention, pharmacology, the South African context, training and planning. The study makes a contribution to the growing knowledge of early strategies in response to those affected by disasters.

M.A. (Psychology) / Post-traumatic Stress Disorder has been used to describe an individual's reaction to an event "outside the range of usual human experience". South African society is one fraught with violence, to the point where authors have contended that South Africans have become accustomed to a "culture of violence". Children and Adults are victims of this violence, whether they be directly or indirectly affected by it. In such an unstable society the school can provide children with a setting which offers them stability and a normative influence. In order to make the school effective in the aid it offers its students, teachers have to be assisted in developing and strengthening already existing con-structive ways of detecting and handling of children's problems. Teachers themselves also need to be provided with support in order to assist them with their own personal problems. This study examines the effects of trauma on the teacher-pupil relationship by providing Work, for teachers in order to learn from them and guide them in the assistance they give to children who have been profoundly affected by the violence in their environment being direct or indirect victims thereof. It is my hope that this exploratory study will broaden the understanding of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and provide useful guidelines in an understanding of the impact violence has on children.

M.A. (Psychology) / Post-traumatic Stress Disorder has been used to describe an individual's reaction to an event "outside the range of usual human experience". South African society is one fraught with violence, to the point where authors have contended that South Africans have become accustomed to a "culture of violence". Children and Adults are victims of this violence, "whether they be directly or indirectly affected by it. In such an unstable society the school can provide children with a setting which offers them stability and a normative influence. In order to make the school effective in the aid it offers its students, teachers have to be assisted in developing and strengthening already existing constructive ways of detecting and handling of children's problems. The teachers themselves also need to be provided with support in order to assist them with their own personal problems. This study examines the effects of trauma on the teacher-pupil relationship by providing workshops for teachers in order to learn from them and guide them in the assistance they give to children who have been profoundly affected by the violence in their environment being direct or indirect victims thereof. It is my hope that this exploratory study will broaden the understanding of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and provide useful guidelines in an understanding of the impact violence has on children.

M.A. (Psychology) / The aim of the research conducted was to analyze and evaluate the prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in emergency workers. A literature study was formulated in which PTSD, and comorbid symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, Stress and Burnout were defined. These are seen as secondary symptoms to the overall effect of PTSD. Data was collected through the use of psychometric tests. These were administered to two main groups. The experimental group reflected the results of the emergency medical worker, while the control group reflected thescores attained by the emergency worker. Both groups were made up of a sample of 30 individuals (n= 30) making the full total of persons studied 60 (n=60). To evaluate for any level of significant difference t-tests for independent groups were administered. Scores found to be significant were trait anxiety scores and burnout scores. All other scores were found to be nonsignificant in a comparison of the two' groups.

M.Ed. (Educational Psychology) / The changing political and social situation in South Africa can be associated with the current violence and poverty in especially the more rural areas. As a result large numbers of black learners are directly or indirectly exposed to violent traumatic incidences. Research indicates that exposure to violent trauma can lead to the development of psychological and emotional disturbances and in particular the development of post traumatic stress disorder. Due to a lack of support systems and accessibility thereof, large numbers of learners exposed to violent trauma are in need of assistance. The learners have serious emotional problems and are also experiencing learning and behavioral problems. Teachers also seem to experience difficulty in handling these traumatized learners, due to a lack of appropriate skills and knowledge. The aim of the study was to identify the needs of teachers in handling learners traumatized by violent incidences and to develop guidelines for teachers in assisting the learners with the purpose of reducing the psychological and emotional effects of the violent trauma. The point of departure of the study was based on the assumption that the educational system needs to support every learner in becoming a healthy member of society through optimal education and development. Eight teachers, two principals and a community worker from two different schools in a predominantly brown area participated in the study. By means of focus group interviews and informal interviews the needs and problems in handling traumatized learners were identified and discussed. The teachers then received training in identifying the symptoms of the learner who has been traumatized by violent trauma. After that, guidelines were supplied to assist teachers in the debriefing of the learner's traumatic symptoms and emotions. These sessions took place over a period of three weeks. The results indicated that the teachers experience difficulty with identifying and handling the traumatized learners in the class. As a result of the study, a number of guidelines, based on the themes that were identified by the analysis of the data, have been developed for teachers in the handling of the traumatized learner