The efficacy of an aerobic conditioning program (jogging) in modifying self-reported chronic intermittent stress is compared to stress-innoculation training (self-statement modification) and a waiting list control group. Guiding this research is a transactional model of stress. The participants were community residents; 48 were females and 25 were males. Therapy sessions were conducted over a 10-week period with subjects meeting in groups for 1 1/2 hours per week and also completing homework assignments and activities. The State and Trait Anxiety Inventories, the Tension Thermometer, a Thought-listing Technique and a Self-efficacy Scale were administered at pre, post, and three-month follow-up. In addition, a submaximal bicycle ergometer test was utilized to predict maximum oxygen uptake (a measure of cardiovascular fitness). Multivariate analyses of variance indicate that both the aerobic conditioning program and the stress-innoculation training were effective in reducing self-reported anxiety and increasing self-efficacy. These changes were maintained three months after completing the program. Subjects who experienced stress more cognltlvely than somatically reduced their level of stress from pre- to post-testlng significantly more than those who experienced stress more somatically, regardless of treatment condition. However, from post to follow-up the somatic subjects continued to improve while the cognitive subjects stayed approximately the same. Compared to the waiting list control group, subjects' positive self-statement ratings increased significantly from pre- to post-testing for the stress-inoculation group. Subjects' self-statement ratings and judges self-statement ratings changed differentially between groups and over time. Subjects in the aerobic conditioning program improved their cardiovascular fitness compared to the stress-inoculation and waiting list groups. Participation in an aerobic conditioning program was found to be a viable alternative to stress-innoculation training as a stress-management treatment. Although the pattern of changes differed between treatment groups and among types of individuals from pre- to post-testing on some measures, at three-months follow-up few differences were found between treatment groups. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate

Teaching is stressful. The demands placed on teachers can result in emotional exhaustion and burnout, causing many to leave the profession. Teachers early in their careers seem to be at special risk, with desistence rates estimated as high as 40% in the first five years. This study was based on the notion that constructive coping can be a resource for teachers, and that teachers later in their professional lives may provide a model for adaptive ways of dealing with professional demands. The goal of the study was to examine whether the coping process utilized by teachers (including reported demands, appraisals, ways of coping, resolutions, and post-coping assessment) differed at different stages of their career. Participants (n = 57) were teachers (90% female) ranging in age from 28-63, teaching in grades 4 to 12. The current study utilized a portion of the baseline open-ended interview of a randomized waitlist control study conducted to explore the effects of a mindfulness-based program. After coding the interview data for each step of the coping process, frequency analyses revealed that: (1) as in previous studies, the most frequently reported demands were problems with students (40%), followed by workload (18%) and parents (15%); (2) the most frequently reported appraisal was extreme negative emotion (44%); (3) the most frequently reported ways of coping were adaptive, including problem-solving (65%), support seeking (35%), and self regulation (22%); (4) the most frequently reported resolution of the stressful episode was successful (51%); and (5) with regards to post coping assessment, teachers most frequently reported that they would do something differently in future episodes if they could (54%). A series of Chi-square analyses to explore whether there is an association between how the teachers responded to questions corresponding to each step revealed that (1) teachers who reported parents as a demand in teaching were more likely to report extreme negative emotion and the use of self-regulation, which was associated with a successful resolution; (2) teachers who reported the administration as a demand were also more likely to use support seeking as a way of coping; and (3) teachers who reported using more maladaptive ways of coping were also more likely to report an unsuccessful resolution. Finally, pairwise comparisons to determine which groups of teachers differed from each other showed that, in keeping with expectations, early career teachers reported "no negative emotion" less and "extreme negative emotion" more than other groups, while late career teachers mentioned "no negative emotion" more. In terms of demands, early career teachers mentioned the environment less whereas late career teachers mentioned parents less and students more often. In terms of coping, late career teachers reported using self-regulation less and cognitive accommodation more than the other groups. Finally, early career teachers were more likely to say that they would try different effective strategies in future coping episodes while late career teachers were less likely to report that they would do so. Applications of these findings are discussed for process-oriented theories of teacher stress and coping, for future studies examining how coping develops over the course of a professional career, and for preservice training and school-based interventions designed to promote adaptive coping for teachers at every phase of their profession.

M.A. (Psychology) / Human suffering and death are an intrinsic part of the work of emergency response personnel. Emergency workers are not immune to the stresses of emergency situations, and it is therefore understandable that those dealing with the critically ill or injured will experience feelings like anger, anxiety and sadness. Gibbs, Drummond and Lachenmeyer (1993) cite some characteristic responses ofemergency workers in their reaction to the daily experience oftrauma. These responses include increased anxiety, tension and feelings of distress, and cognitive deficiencies. Physical symptoms and the abuse of alcohol are also common. Despite the considerable body of knowledge regarding stress in emergency workers, most intervention strategies to alleviate the long-term consequences of mental trauma on these workers have been prophylactic in terms of future service. Little has been done to validate such efforts (Dunning, 1990). Within the South African context research in this field is also scant, yet the overwhelming evidence ofthe reactions cited in research (Hetherington, 1993a; Gibbs et al, 1993; Mitchell, 1985, 1982, 1984b; Sparrius, 1992 and Mitchell and Bray, 1990), both local and international, would indicate that such reactions exist in South Africa and should therefore be extensively investigated. It would therefore be necessary to implement an intervention programme for this group and systematically evaluate it. However, the nature of PTSD on its own, and how it relates to the emergency worker needs to be discussed...

M.A. / This study looks into the types of stressors specific to the Emergency Medical Services. The study was undertaken over a period of two years with the following objectives: • A literature survey regarding stress, organisational stress in general and stress in the context of Emergency Medical Services in particular. • An investigation of the personnel of the Emergency Medical Services to ascertain the stressors perceived as stressful by them. • Recommendations on how to prevent or lower stress in the Emergency Medical Services. The first part of this study is devoted to a theoretical investigation which gives an overview of stress in its broadest sense as well as stress in organisations which includes cumulative stress/burnout. Critical Incident Stress and Post Traumatic Stress are also closely examined, as well as the personality characteristics of members of the Emergency Medical Services. The point of departure for the researcher is an ecosystemic perspective where objectivity itself is questionable. Therefore, qualitative research was called for and the transactional/interactional model of Richard Lazarus was used to categorise stressors. The research results suggest that what the Emergency Medical Service personnel perceive as stressful are mainly organisational stressors but they acknowledge that in the long term the continual dealing with death and trauma starts to take its toll. Criticisms that could be levelled against the study are that the results are only generalisable to the personnel of the Johannesburg Emergency Services, whose demographic characteristics and backgrounds differ, for instance, from those who work at Bryanston, or Pretoria. As the study relied solely on personal disclosure and observation the results can be seen as somewhat subjective in nature. What was communicated as stress-related events was what was perceived as stressful by the personnel as well as the researcher's subjective perception of whether certain events were perceived as stressful for the personnel. After working on the ambulance with these personnel for over three years, the researcher is an accepted part of their system, and became subject to the same blunting of affect and depersonalisation of victims as the Emergency workers. Over an extended period in time, it became harder to divorce the researcher from the "worker" while on duty, to maintain a scientific perspective and to write objectively. However, the findings of this study concur with those done by previous researchers on this subject such as Sparrius (1992) and Du Toit & Botes (1996).

This study examined the effects of two 8-week stress-management interventions (aerobic exercise and progressive relaxation) on reductions in trait anxiety, increases in self-efficacy, and enhancement of coping strategies for sedentary working women. It was expected that aerobic exercise, a relatively new treatment, would be as effective or more effective than progressive relaxation, a well researched treatment, as a stress-management intervention. The subjects were 72 females aged 24-59, (M = 39.8) solicited from the Vancouver community via newspaper advertisement asking for stressed volunteers to participate in two stress-management programs. They were interviewed and randomly assigned to an aerobic exercise or progressive relaxation treatment. The treatment sessions were conducted over an 8-week period with subjects meeting in groups for 1 1/2 hours per week. Prior to the first session subjects were administered: STAI-T (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970), the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer et al., 1982), Ways of Coping Checklist (Lazarus 6 Folkman, 1984), and a 7-Day Exercise Recall Inventory (Blair, 1984). Subjects were assessed again at post treatment and at 8-week follow-up. Repeated measures, multivariate analysis of variance with preplanned contrasts, indicated that both treatment groups were effective in decreasing trait anxiety and increasing self-efficacy from pre- to post-treatment. These changes were maintained at 8-week follow-up. In addition, a one-way multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated that the total number of coping strategies, as well as the difference between the number of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies, did not change significantly from pre- to post-treatment. Additionally, there was a negative relationship between low scores in self-efficacy and high scores in emotion-focused coping. In response to ancillary post-treatment and follow-up questionnaires, aerobic exercise was perceived by the participants as a more satisfactory stress-management treatment. Implications of these results and suggestions for future studies are discussed. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

In the financial industry, there is a high demand for employees to possess all the necessary skills and motivation to perform highly specialized functions, and handle demands that accompany increasing stress levels. The aim of the research was to determine whether there is a relationship between work and non-work stressors and work-life balance in the Global Market Trading industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used, with a sample of 72 global market trading professionals drawn from a financial institution in Gauteng. Two questionnaires and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The questionnaires proved to be reliable. The power of the study was calculated. Descriptive statistics and Spearman correlation was used to organise, summarise and describe the data. The findings of the study show that as global market trading professional’s intrinsic factors at work and stress regarding their personal time increases, their experience of negative WHI increase as well. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M.Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology )

In the financial industry, there is a high demand for employees to possess all the necessary skills and motivation to perform highly specialized functions, and handle demands that accompany increasing stress levels. The aim of the research was to determine whether there is a relationship between work and non-work stressors and work-life balance in the Global Market Trading industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used, with a sample of 72 global market trading professionals drawn from a financial institution in Gauteng. Two questionnaires and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The questionnaires proved to be reliable. The power of the study was calculated. Descriptive statistics and Spearman correlation was used to organise, summarise and describe the data. The findings of the study show that as global market trading professional’s intrinsic factors at work and stress regarding their personal time increases, their experience of negative WHI increase as well. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M.Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology )

Change in any form can become painful if individuals are not equipped with the necessary coping mechanisms. The transformation in the educational arena over the last few years has resulted in increased stress levels for school principals. This study investigates the role and impact of a stress intervention programme, the Art of Living workshop, using controlled breathing techniques, on the functioning of primary school principals in the Phoenix Circuit, Durban. A combined quantitative and qualitative research approach employing structured questionnaires and semi-structured individual interviews was used to compare the principals’ stress levels before and after the stress intervention programme. The findings revealed that the intervention programme was successful in reducing principals’ stress levels. A lack of resources, increased workloads, learner discipline, educator attitudes, indifferent parents and resolving conflicts created stress for principals. Benefits of the Art of Living workshop included the ability to remain calm and relaxed; and improved sleep patterns, increased energy levels and improved human relation skills. / Educational Leadership and Management / MED (ED MNG)

Thesis (M Social Work)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study attempts to investigate the sources of stress and burnout in the social work profession and specifically in mental health settings. In order to achieve this, a literature study is undertaken which identified the sources of stress and burnout as external and internal stresses. External stresses can be identified as the administrative function of supervision, the educational function of supervision, and the relationship between the supervisor, the social worker and the client, aspects in the social work profession and the organisation. The personality and gender of the social worker are discussed as internal sources of stress. Social workers' experiences of stress and burnout are explored against the background of the socio-economic and political changes after the first democratic election in 1994 in South Africa. The literature review also indicated that there are peculiar stresses in mental health settings due to the clients' mental conditions. An exploratory study was undertaken in which 17 social workers in the Peninsula, working in mental health settings, participated. Information on the research topic was obtained by means of anonymous questionnaires. A group interview was arranged to ensure that all the questionnaires were received. It was found that since the 1994 democratic election, social workers worked under more stressful circumstances due to limited resources, restructuring, decreased manpower, a higher caseload, deinstitutionalisation of mental patients and an increased amount of uncertainty with regard to job security. Aspects in the social work profession that caused the most stress were identified as insufficient salaries and limited opportunities for promotion. The participants revealed uncertainty with regard to their future in the social work profession. Social workers acknowledge the importance of the supportive function of supervision but are also of the opinion that individuals should take responsibility to address burnout. Strategies that can be used by the social worker, the organisation and the supervisor to address burnout, are discussed. On the basis of the results and conclusion of the study, recommendations are made to supervisors, as well as further research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word ondersoek ingestel na die bronne van stres en uitbranding in die maatskaplikewerkberoep en spesifiek in 'n geestesgesondheidsopset. Ten einde hierin te slaag, word 'n literatuurstudie onderneem en word die bronne van stres en uitbranding geïdentifiseer as eksterne stressors soos byvoorbeeld die administratiewe funksie van supervisie, die onderrrigfunksie van supervisie, die verhouding tussen die supervisor en die maatskaplike werker, die klientsisteem, aspekte in die maatskaplikewerkberoep en die organisasie, en interne stressors waaronder die maatskaplike werker se persoonlikheid en geslag bespreek is. Die sosio-ekonomiese en politieke veranderinge wat ingetree het na die eerste demokratiese verkiesing in 1994 in Suid-Afrika is in ag geneem en maatskaplike werkers se belewing van stres en uitbranding is teen hierdie agtergrond verder ge-eksploreer. Die literatuurstudie dui aan dat eiesoortige stressors in 'n geestesgesondheidsopset bestaan wat hoofsaaklik verband hou met die unieke kliëntsisteem en hul siektestoestand. 'n Verkennende studie is onderneem waartydens maatskaplike werkers in die skiereiland wat in 'n geestesgesondheidsopset werk, betrek is. Inligting is bekom deur middel van anonieme vraelyste. 'n Groeponderhoud het verseker dat al die vraelyste terug ontvang is. Daar is bevind dat maatskaplike werkers onder meer stresvolle omstandighede voor die 1994 verkiesing vanwee beperkte hulpbronne, herstrukturering, verminderde mannekrag, verhoogde gevalleladings, deïnstitusionalisering van pasiënte en groter onsekerheid met betrekking tot werksekuriteit. Aspekte in die maatskaplikewerkberoep wat die meeste stres veroorsaak is onder andere onvoldoende vergoeding en beperkte bevorderingsgeleenthede. Die respondente weerspieël 'n onsekerheid met betrekking tot hul toekoms in die beroep. Maatskaplike werkers erken die belangrikheid van die ondersteuningsfunksie in supervisie, maar is ook van mening dat individue 'n verantwoordelikheid het om self uitbranding aan te spreek. Strategieë wat die maatskaplike werker, die organisasie en die supervisor kan aanwend om uitbranding aan te spreek word derhalwe bespreek. In die lig van die bevindinge van die ondersoek, word aanbevelings aan supervisors gemaak ten opsigte van verdere navorsing.

Change in any form can become painful if individuals are not equipped with the necessary coping mechanisms. The transformation in the educational arena over the last few years has resulted in increased stress levels for school principals. This study investigates the role and impact of a stress intervention programme, the Art of Living workshop, using controlled breathing techniques, on the functioning of primary school principals in the Phoenix Circuit, Durban. A combined quantitative and qualitative research approach employing structured questionnaires and semi-structured individual interviews was used to compare the principals’ stress levels before and after the stress intervention programme. The findings revealed that the intervention programme was successful in reducing principals’ stress levels. A lack of resources, increased workloads, learner discipline, educator attitudes, indifferent parents and resolving conflicts created stress for principals. Benefits of the Art of Living workshop included the ability to remain calm and relaxed; and improved sleep patterns, increased energy levels and improved human relation skills. / Educational Leadership and Management / MED (ED MNG)