The study of ritual and practice within the Aztecs is problematic because of the emphasis given to the state public ceremonies rather than daily practice. Scholars often generalize or set fixed definitions on domestic ritual centered on class, gender, and space. These generalizations are passed on to the objects associated with domestic ritual, the figurines. In my study, I pose that by eliminating such limited terms and definitions about Aztec figurines and domestic ritual might help us gain a better understanding of Aztec daily practice. I argue that by examining figurines one can see the diversity and complexity inherent within domestic ritual that encompassed not only women, but also a variety of participants, social classes, and spaces. / text

This thesis presents an analysis of the Epiclassic and Postclassic period ceramic assemblages from the site of La Laguna, Tlaxcala, Mexico. Almost all of the sherds come from Feature 185, a sheet midden context deposited in c. 1200 CE. During this period, central Mexico was not dominated by a single polity, but the many smaller altepemeh (central Mexican city-states) were tied together economically and culturally. This interconnected system has been described as the Postclassic International World System by Smith and Berdan (2000; 2003). Although La Laguna was a small rural settlement on the periphery of this society, the wares and iconography present in the ceramic assemblage show that its inhabitants were involved with the regional economic and intellectual interactions of the time. I present the assemblage in terms of ware, vessel form, and iconography, and suggest avenues for future research on Postclassic ceramics in Tlaxcala.

The concept of religion and its practice within ancient societies across the world is a subject that has fascinated scientists for centuries. The pre-Columbian Maya codices, first-hand Postclassic hieroglyphic documents, have been examined by hundreds of anthropologists. Analysis of these books has led scientist to hypothesize that these manuscripts were vitally connected to the Maya Postclassic belief system. Understanding the central focus of a civilization's religion and how, why and under what circumstances the religion is practiced truly distinguishes them as a culture. The intent of this thesis is to examine the role of rain in Maya Postclassic religious belief. Through an examination of Postclassic Maya ethnographies, archaeological evidence and the Maya Dresden, Paris and Madrid codices, this thesis evaluates the major theme of rain that is threaded throughout the culture and religion of the Maya people. By cross referencing ethnohistoric, ethnographic and archaeological evidence, it is revealed that rain was a fundamental-part of Maya religious practice as: 1) a symbol of fertility, 2) a phenomenon that people actively sought to control through religious practice and 3) as a fundamental building block of the Maya universe, construed broadly to encompass both the natural and divine elements of the universe.

Petrographic and Type:variety analyses of Colha ceramics are used to investigate changes in ceramic production technology and organization during the Early and Middle Postclassic. Postclassic sherds from Colha are grouped by petrofabric, surface treatment, and modes. This dissertation focuses on the petrofabric analysis of the ceramic sherds. The groupings are then compared to locally available raw materials. Changes in technological homogeneity, production specialization, and origin will be examined and related to the general economy of Postclassic Colha. / text

abstract: There has been debate and uncertainty on two important issues in the Basin of Mexico: the formation of Epiclassic city-states following Teotihuacan state collapse (ca. A.D. 650), and the nature of the subsequent Early Postclassic Tula state expansion. I evaluate the Basin as a case of regeneration of socio-political complexity using stylistic and compositional pottery analysis to examine patterns of interaction from the Epiclassic (ca. A.D. 600/650-850) through the Early Postclassic (ca. A.D. 850-1150). I selected representative specimens of temporally diagnostic pottery from the three large settlement clusters in the northwestern Basin (Tula and the Zumpango region), the northeastern Basin (Teotihuacan Valley), and the southeastern Basin (Cerro Portezuelo, the Ixtapalapa and Chalco regions) to assess: 1) participation in regional cultural complexes, 2) direct exchange or local production of particular pottery types, 3) regional variation in the production of pottery. For certain time periods, ceramic patterns among smaller settlements clusters were distinguished. The combination of chemical and attribute analysis provided a robust method for identifying regional variation in pottery. Chemical characterization using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) was used to provide fine-scaled compositional reference groups to assess regional production and exchange. Stylistic and technological attributes were used to define highly visible decorative traditions that were easily copied and low visibility production steps that were learned. Teotihuacan withdrawal from the southeastern Basin prompted reorganization and adoption of a distinctive pottery complex. Epiclassic settlement patterns throughout the Basin were reorganized into nucleated settlement clusters with unoccupied areas between them. Results indicate regional participation in the Coyotlatelco pottery tradition and a strong pattern of consumption of locally produced pottery by settlement cluster. Tula underwent significant urban growth in the Early Postclassic, while the Basin was marked by a process of "ruralization" as the Epiclassic centers dispersed and settlements filled the previously unoccupied landscape. Tula expanded its influence into the Basin with varying degrees of integration. The closest settlements in the northwestern Basin acquired the most Tula-produced pottery. The Teotihuacan Valley and Cerro Portezuelo settlements consumed mostly locally produced Tula style pottery. The southeastern settlements were least connected to Tula and initiated interactions towards Puebla-Tlaxcala. / Dissertation/Thesis / Notes authorizing use of figures. Not to be posted to public or part of publication / Ph.D. Anthropology 2011

The role of warfare in Maya society is much debated, but it seems to have been widespread during the Late Postclassic (A.D. 1250-1519) and Protohistoric (A.D. 1519-1696) periods. This study investigates the manner in which the Maya engaged in warfare during these centuries by reviewing archaeological data on Maya warfare and Spanish accounts of their contacts with the Maya of central Petén, Guatemala. The bow and arrow, which were not used during the Classic period, are "area weapons" that can be used at a distance, and appear to have changed the character and tactics of warfare in the Postclassic period and in Maya defensive interactions with the Spaniards. Eighty small projectile points from the sites of Zacpetén and Ixlú were analyzed. These triangular points, believed to have tipped arrows, were made of chert and obsidian and varied particularly in the placement and number of notches, in the shape of their bases, and in the amount of retouch. Notching and basal variation do not clearly relate to differing ethno-political units in the central Petén Postclassic, to functional areas of the sites, or to ballistic performance. Variations in amount of retouch may indicate that the points were made quickly.

This study examines small projectile point technology of the Postclassic Lowland Maya (A.D. 1400 - 1697) using a technological systems framework, to evaluate production strategies and the movement of finished goods within Mesoamerican exchange networks. Small arrow points (1 - 3 cm long) were typically made from obsidian and microcrystalline silicates (chert, chalcedony), and were key components of bow-and-arrow weaponry among multiple Mayan-speaking groups and ethnopolities known as the Itza, Xiw, Kowoj, Chak'an Itza, Kehach, Dzuluinikob, Chetumal, Lakam tun (Lacandon), and Chuj. Literature suggests that the Late Postclassic period was a time of heightened "international" exchange, defined by frequent inter-polity interactions, information sharing, and intensified long-distance exchange of raw materials across political boundaries. Thus, this study adds to anthropological theory by focusing on the interplay between political geography and material culture to understand the relationship between non-elite goods and intensified social interaction. In total, this study analyzes 2,128 small projectile points originating from 17 different Lowland centers, focusing explicitly on the research domains of raw material procurement, production, use, repair, and discard. Multiple lithic analyses are used to collect data including macroscopic methods, taxonomic classification, and spatial-contextual analysis. Additionally, instrumental methods including portable x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and cross-over immuno-electrophoresis (CIEP) are used to identify raw material procurement patterns and interpret use activities related to the bow-and-arrow. The results of this study demonstrate that raw material preference and procurement strategies for small points varied significantly across the Maya Lowlands, and were often contingent on ethnopolitical affiliations and factionalism. In particular, strong differences emerge among neighboring polities within the Petén Lakes region of Guatemala, where the Itza, Kowoj, and Chak'an Itza maintained territories in close proximity to one another. A taxonomic and technological classification of small points reveals considerable variability in technological styles in addition to morphometric variability of haft types. Spatial-contextual analyses of depositional patterns demonstrate a range of activities associated with bow-and-arrow weaponry that often included symbolic associations with ritual and civic-ceremonial architecture. CIEP results reveal a multiplicity of use activities of the bow-and-arrow, with several positive immunological matches for indigenous and introduced fauna. Overall, the holistic approach of this dissertation helps bridge the divide between seemingly mundane artifacts and past economic behaviors that are critically important to Postclassic Maya studies.

Using archaeological and ethnohistorical data, this dissertation examines the character of the relationship between the Late Postclassic (ca. AD 1250-1520) frontier center of Totogal, located in the western Tuxtla Mountains (Toztlan) of southern Veracruz, Mexico, and the expanding Aztec Empire. Traditional models of imperialism examine frontiers from a core perspective that limits the autonomy and agency of groups in the path of expansion. Recent ethnographic, ethnohistoric, and archaeological studies of other boundaries, however, suggest that considerable room for negotiation exists within the space of interactions, whether asymmetrical amounts of power characterize the home bases of those groups. I argue that elites at Totogal, using imperial symbols and markers of their own high status, sponsored feasts and rituals for the non-elite public, during which they brokered the potentially conflicting interests of the Aztecs and the tribute paying population of the Tuxtlas. The invitation of the public to feasts and rituals that combined imperial and local elite symbols (and possibly green obsidian), naturalized the relationship between local elites and imperial representatives with non-elite occupants of Totogal and nearby settlements by establishing a reciprocal system of gifting whereby food and drink, served in the context of elaborate religious and commensal rituals, provided a benefit to the Tuxteco public which, along with other exotic highland goods, was viewed as an acceptable exchange for the local tribute items that the empire desired. This study is an important application of current anthropological perspectives on boundaries, borders, and frontiers to the Aztec Empire. It is also a critical examination of the types of strategies individuals and groups living in boundary regions can enact in situations of contact and change. While studies of modern groups in boundary regions have addressed identity construction and manipulation, and other dynamic social, political, and cultural processes that take place, they do not typically or systematically examine how the negotiations that are enacted in boundary zones are materialized—how changing identities are represented symbolically through the use of particular products or consumption patterns. It is in this area that archaeological perspectives on boundary zone interactions can make important contributions to the modern world.

abstract: This study analyzed archaeological residential inventories from the center of Sauce and its hinterlands to address the possible appearance of markets and the structure of exchange during the Middle Postclassic period (A.D. 1200-1350) in south-central Veracruz, Mexico. Economic development is rarely the result of a coherent strategy either on the part of managing or consuming elites or on the part of the average consumer. Instead, a combination of strategies and overlapping exchange systems provided the context, rather than any one explanation, for how commercial market exchange develops. Identifying the context is challenging because economies have multiple exchange mechanisms, which require clearly defined expectations that separate spatial and network (distributional) data. This separation is vital because different exchange mechanisms such as centralized redistribution versus central-place marketing produce similar spatial patterns. Recent innovations in identifying exchange mechanisms use network (distributional) instead of spatial expectations. Based on this new body of knowledge, new quantitative methods were developed to distinguish between exchange through social networks versus market exchange for individual items based on comparisons of household inventories, later combining this information with spatial and contextual analyses. First, a Bayesian-inspired Monte Carlo computer simulation was designed to identify exchange mechanisms, using all household items including cooking utensils, serving dishes, chipped stone tools, etc., from 65 residential units from Sauce and its hinterland. Next, the socioeconomic rank of households, GIS spatial analyses, and quality assessments of pottery and other items were used to evaluate social and political aspects of exchange and consumption. The results of this study indicated that most products were unrestricted in access, and spatial analyses showed they were acquired in a market near Sauce. Few restrictions on most of the polychromes, chipped stone, and assorted household items (e.g., spindle whorls) lend strong support to commoner household prominence in developing markets. However, there were exceptions. Dull Buff Polychrome was associated with the Sauce center; analyses showed that its access was restricted through social networks. "Cookie-cutter" style figurines and incense burners also showed restriction. Restricted items found in Sauce and wealthier residences indicate enduring political and social inequalities within market development. For Sauce, a combination of elite and commoner household interests was crucial in supporting the growth of commercial exchange rather than a top-down directive. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Anthropology 2011

Here we present a bioarchaeological analysis of a Postclassic (ca. A.D. 950-1524) Maya mass grave from the site of Zacpetén in northern Guatemala. Osteological and spatial analyses (including a Ripley's K function) found evidence of cutting, drilling, and grinding of long bones and teeth as well as the intentional removal and manipulation of skeletal elements based on the left or right sides of the body. The remains were enveloped in layers of cut blocks and fist-sized chunks of white limestone and were placed in a depression on the western side of the ceremonial core of the site. The western orientation of the depression was explicitly associated with the underworld in contrast with the temple on the eastern side of the ceremonial core. The grave was the product of exhumation and violation of enemies' bodies, sacrifice, or the burial of war dead (or some combination thereof) and was created when the Kowoj group emerged as a political force in the Petén lakes region. It served to symbolically rupture the past inhabitants' links to the site and to create an enduring symbol of their defeat.