The satisfaction-paradox, defined as the state of being satisfied with objectively unsatisfactory living conditions, represents a dysfunctional state of the poor for both the government and individuals by creating long-term poverty. Traditional rationales classify the reasons for this phenomenon as conscious decisions of individuals or shiftlessness and thereby results in material and social costs associated with this phenomenenon for both the individual and the government. This study undertakes a first step to provide empirical evidence for a constructive explanation of the satisfaction-paradox employing the theory of learned helplessness. A secondary analysis of the Hunger Factors Assessment data set in Oregon (1986, 1988) was performed. The study uses a newly developed theoretical model that incorporates both the quality of life model, from which the satisfaction-paradox evolves, as well as the learned helplessness model, offered as one explanation of the paradox. Criteria from the model were then defined by measures in the data set to identify the group of "learned helpless and satisfied poor". Approximately 10 percent of the Oregon Emergency Food Users have been identified as "learned helpless and satisfied poor". The investigation of their socio-demographic characteristics, in comparison to "not learned helpless and dissatisfied poor", has described them as rather more likely to be female, single, older, employed, home owners or renters, living with others, and long-term residents of Oregon. In these ways they seem to be more settled then the poverty stereotype and more closely resemble typical Oregon residents. However, like others in poverty, they lack income and information (or resource) networks. Discriminant analysis was utilized to make a first step towards early identification of the poor "at risk" of learning helplessness by assessing their socio-demographic characteristics. The resulting function includes these variables: age of respondents, their employment status, their gender, the fact that they receive welfare income, their household equipment, their educational level, the number of income sources, the length of residency, their health status, household size, their homeownership, the fact that they have health insurance and finally, the labor potential of their households. It explains, in total, 48.3 percent of the difference between the two groups at a p-level of 0.01 or less, a Chi-Square of 71.13 (dF = 14) and a Wilk's Lambda of 0.76. Its predictive assignment of learned helpless and satisfied poor was 12 percent higher than a random assignment and 15 percent in the case of the not learned helpless and dissatisfied poor. The model, therefore, seems to be useful in understanding a certain segment of the poor, but needs more development research. A longitudinal, primary data set, including psychological variables and refined operationalization of the learned helplessness concept would bring more detailed insight and practical implications. However, it could be shown that an individual attributing "failure" internally, and having opportunity to experience failure and uncontrollability, can enter the process of learning helplessness regardless of former achievements and value dispositions. Causality models to explain poverty should hence acknowledge both micro- and macro-level effects and thus result in more complex explanations and solutions than current models. / Graduation date: 1991

Thesis (MSc (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / Family resilience focuses on the salutegenic properties of families and refers to the ability of families to return to normal family functioning after experiencing adversity. The primary aim of this study was to identify factors that contribute to resilience in poor single parent families.

Background: Longitudinal studies suggest that socioeconomic status (SES) and mental health have a bidirectional relationship, such that declines in SES lead to a deterioration of mental health (social causation), while worsening mental health leads to declines in SES (social drift). Nevertheless, existing research has important substantive and methodological gaps. Most notably, studies often employ one from a diverse range of SES indicators and arrive at different conclusions, with labor market indicators (e.g., earnings) providing more consistent evidence of bidirectional effects and non-labor market indicators (e.g., family income) generally offering only support for social causation dynamics. Studies frequently estimate “average effects” failing to examine differences in social causation and social drift effects across populations. From a methodological standpoint, studies often have limited ability to draw causal inferences. For instance, studies examine either social causation or social drift effects independently without controlling for reverse causation. Other studies fail to control for time-invariant differences across individuals that could significantly bias estimates. Furthermore, studies on the association between material hardship and mental health often rely on measures of material hardship with unknown validity and reliability. This three-paper dissertation seeks to tackle several shortcomings in existing research, with the goal of improving and advancing our understanding how SES and mental health affect each other over time and how these dynamics vary across populations. Methods: This dissertation employs data from a five-wave representative panel (n=3,103) of working-age (18-64) New York City adults with yearly measures of individual earnings, family income (income-to-needs), material hardship, and psychological distress. Paper 1 examines bidirectional effects between income types (individual earnings and family income) and distress by relying on cross-lagged panel models with unit fixed effects (FE-CLPM). Subgroup analyses are conducted by examining effects by age, gender, education, and racial/ethnic identification. Paper 2 develops measurement models for material hardship and examines the relationships longitudinal trajectories of income, material hardship, and distress. To identify dimensions underlying the seven observed material hardship indicators, Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA) were performed on a randomly selected training sample (n=1,542). Subsequently, cross-sectional Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) and longitudinal invariance tests were conducted on the holdout sample (n=1,561) to further examine the factor structure extracted via EFA and test its measurement equivalence across time. A latent state-trait model examined the extent to which indicators vary or persist over time. Additional CFA models were specified to examine the association between material hardship and income types and psychological distress. Lastly, utilizing factor scores calculated based on CFA models, parallel linear growth curve models were estimated to examine the association between the longitudinal trajectories of income types, material hardship, and psychological distress. Paper 3 examines the bidirectional effects between material hardship, psychological distress, earnings, and family income. Material hardship is measured via a single scale and two subscales for unmet needs (e.g., food insufficiency, housing instability, medical needs, cash hardship) and billpaying hardship (e.g., difficulty paying for rent/mortgage and utilities, utilities disconnection). Factor scores for material hardship measures were estimated based on measurement models developed in paper 2 of this dissertation. I utilize FE-CLPMs to examine social causation and social drift effects between material hardship and psychological distress. An initial model examines effects between material hardship and distress only controlling for partnership status and number of children as time-varying covariates. Subsequently, three-variable FE-CLPMs examine effects between income (earnings or family income), material hardship, and distress. Total, direct, and indirect effects are estimated to examine the effect of income on distress via material hardship, and the effect of distress on material hardship through income. Follow-up models examine the simultaneous effects of unmet needs and billpaying hardship. Finally, subgroup analyses examine bidirectional effects between the material hardship subscales and distress by age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, and permanent family income. Conclusions: The findings of this dissertation provide new evidence about the bidirectional effects between SES and psychological distress. Nonetheless, this study also reveals important differences in the magnitude and direction of effects depending on the SES indicator employed and the population studied. Across income types, individual earnings may be stronger determinants of mental health than family income. Additionally, social causation and social drift effects between income and distress vary by age, education, gender, and racial/ethnic identities. In paper 2, two distinct, although highly correlated, dimensions of material hardship were identified, namely, unmet needs and billpaying hardship. Consistent with prior research, the rate of change in material hardship mediated the association between the rates of change in income and distress. However, the mediating role of material hardship seems to be driven by the unmet needs factor and not billpaying hardship. Unmet needs (e.g., food, housing, medical care) may be more important social determinants of mental health than difficulties paying for bills (e.g., rent, utilities). The findings of paper 3 offer evidence supporting the reciprocal relationship between material hardship and psychological distress, particularly highlighting the significance of unmet needs as a social determinant of mental health. Difficulties in paying bills seem to be especially important among individuals facing economic disadvantage and those nearing retirement age. From a methodological perspective, the findings of this three-paper dissertation make a case for employing rigorous methods to improve the causal inference of studies about the relationship between SES and mental health. Particularly, this study underscores the importance of methods that can control for unobserved differences between individuals and examining social causation and social drift effects simultaneously. From a substantive perspective, this dissertation also underscores the importance of moving beyond ‘average effects’ and examining potential disparities in the way that subpopulations experience the effects of SES and mental health. From a social policy standpoint, this study highlights the importance of providing support to mitigate the impact of material hardship and income shocks, particularly earnings losses, as these factors have independent effects on distress. Moreover, future research ought to prioritize the development of interventions aimed at alleviating the economic and mental health consequences arising from bidirectional effects between SES and psychological distress.

The largest of the War on Poverty programs, Job Corps, was created to alleviate poverty by providing affective, remedial, and vocational training for disadvantaged youth throughout the country. Job Corps was the first attempt in the United States to establish and operate a national program of residential vocational education. Legislation and plans for the program were drafted in a very short period of time, and the gains and failures of Job Corps' first ten years can be attributed to the speed with which the program was enacted. Despite early shortcomings, Job Corps survived a political attack by President Nixon, and emerged as a viable poverty program in the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) legislation. Records of the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), Department of Labor, and the White House were reviewed. Interviews were taken with former OEO Director Sargent Shriver, two Job Corps Directors, and Job Corps staff so the first ten years of the program could be documented. Job Corps' planning and establishment, its operational problems and innovations, and its transformation from a program of vocational training in a Democratic administration to a politically-viable entity in a Republican administration, are described. / Ed. D.

In view of the high levels of poverty in most under-developed and developing countries, poverty reduction has become an international phenomenon. South Africa (SA) is a country faced with the challenge of poverty as a result of the high rates of unemployment fifteen (15) years after the introduction of the new democratic dispensation. Poverty reduction has been placed at the centre of global development objectives to improve people‟s lives through expanding their choices, their freedom, and their dignity. Numerous countries have developed poverty-reduction strategies, which are over-arching macro-strategies implemented by different social and economic sectors in collaboration with the private sector. South Africa, however, does not have an over-arching poverty reduction strategy, which is the key national governmental priority, although many poverty-reduction programmes exist. The existing poverty reduction initiatives in South Africa, such as Income Generating Projects (IGPs), are either established by Government or the Civil Society structures with the aim to assist in changing the standard of living of poor people so that they can at least meet their basic needs, such as food, shelter and clothing. This study focuses on the IGPs that operate in Atteridgeville, Tshwane, with the view to explore and describe the experiences of individuals who participate in these IGPs. A qualitative research approach was selected for the study and three IGPs were selected from the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) that affiliate to the Phelindaba Forum. This Forum coordinates social development activities in Atteridgeville, Saulsville and Mshengoville. The findings of the study indicated that although IGPs are established to benefit participants financially, there are other factors that motivate people to join and remain in the projects, such as moral support amongst members. Furthermore, some NGOs claim to facilitate IGPs, but in some instances, these IGPs are left to operate on their own without much needed assistance. The recommendation for future studies is that participants need to be engaged with in order to get a true reflection of how the IGPs operate. The assistance and support of NGOs are crucial for the sustainability of such projects. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Science (Mental Health))

This is a research report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Diversity Studies, in the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. / Prior to and immediately following 1994, South African youth literature has largely focused on atypical groups, especially young people’s participation in political protest and violence (Marks 2001; Ntsebeza 1993; Seekings 1993; Straker 1992; Van Kessel 2000). The challenge for new research is to grapple more broadly with the question of how young people construct ordinary lives and identities amid the changing and transforming socio-cultural, economic and political landscape. As such, this study aimed to focus on the ordinary, quotidian narratives of youth in an extraordinary place of Marikana, where the massacre of striking mineworkers took place in 2012. Face-to-face, individual interviews were conducted with 8 participants (aged between 19 and 31 years) living in Marikana, including people who were born in or had migrated to Marikana. Both structural and thematic analyses were used to analyse the transcribed texts. The structural analysis was used to examine how poverty plays a role in the form of stories told. The thematic analysis focused on the content of the narratives, drawing linkages across participants’ stories to understand how they make meaning of events and experiences in their lives. The themes identified were organised as follows: Marikana (nostalgia about the place of Marikana, and belonging to the place of Marikana), childhood in Marikana and elsewhere (growing up in Marikana, and growing up elsewhere), families and their structure (single-parent headed and transnational families, (grand)mothers as pillars of family, and (inter)generational absence/presence of fathers), education (lack of funds for schooling), and possibilities for the future (dreams and futures deferred, and fantasies of escape). The findings indicate that the trauma and violence of the Marikana Massacre was remarkably marginal in their narratives. Instead, participants stressed poverty as a systemic problem that is far more pervasive in how they (re)produce(d) their stories. This core finding reveals poverty as a perpetual structural violence, a repeated state of trauma that is inflicted on their lives and reflected in their stories. Further findings show that many biological fathers are absent in the lives of their children, mostly due to migration or death. Consequently, sons follow in their fathers’ footsteps, leaving their new families behind (some becoming transnational parents). This produces a prevalent intergenerational absence of fathers in Marikana. As a result, mothers and grandmothers are the main breadwinners and emotional pillars of the family. / MT2017

In view of the high levels of poverty in most under-developed and developing countries, poverty reduction has become an international phenomenon. South Africa (SA) is a country faced with the challenge of poverty as a result of the high rates of unemployment fifteen (15) years after the introduction of the new democratic dispensation. Poverty reduction has been placed at the centre of global development objectives to improve people‟s lives through expanding their choices, their freedom, and their dignity. Numerous countries have developed poverty-reduction strategies, which are over-arching macro-strategies implemented by different social and economic sectors in collaboration with the private sector. South Africa, however, does not have an over-arching poverty reduction strategy, which is the key national governmental priority, although many poverty-reduction programmes exist. The existing poverty reduction initiatives in South Africa, such as Income Generating Projects (IGPs), are either established by Government or the Civil Society structures with the aim to assist in changing the standard of living of poor people so that they can at least meet their basic needs, such as food, shelter and clothing. This study focuses on the IGPs that operate in Atteridgeville, Tshwane, with the view to explore and describe the experiences of individuals who participate in these IGPs. A qualitative research approach was selected for the study and three IGPs were selected from the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) that affiliate to the Phelindaba Forum. This Forum coordinates social development activities in Atteridgeville, Saulsville and Mshengoville. The findings of the study indicated that although IGPs are established to benefit participants financially, there are other factors that motivate people to join and remain in the projects, such as moral support amongst members. Furthermore, some NGOs claim to facilitate IGPs, but in some instances, these IGPs are left to operate on their own without much needed assistance. The recommendation for future studies is that participants need to be engaged with in order to get a true reflection of how the IGPs operate. The assistance and support of NGOs are crucial for the sustainability of such projects. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Science (Mental Health))

This study examined the association between poverty and child neglect. The existence of a general association has been established for some time. However, there is much debate, and little detailed research, on the specific processes that create this association. This study focused on the form of neglect that involves the most health risk for children—physical neglect. It was hypothesized that poverty should increase the likelihood of a specific type of physical neglect, neglect of safety and basic needs, occurring more than other types. Using official child protective services data from a national data set three types of physical neglect were examined: abandonment, lack of safety or basic needs, and inadequate supervision. Hypothesis 1 was that poverty increases the odds of safety/basic needs neglect more than it influences the odds of either abandonment neglect or inadequate supervision neglect, controlling for prior neglect. Hypothesis 2 focused on a test of whether the link between poverty and physical neglect is not direct, but is instead mediated by caregiver stress. Three waves of longitudinal data were used for this test to establish causal time order between poverty and stress, and between stress and physical neglect. This study analyzed data from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN), Assessments 0-3 from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect at Cornell University. The data was analyzed using multinominal logistic regression for both models. The results did not confirm Hypothesis 1, though the analysis was limited somewhat due to low frequencies of some physical neglect types in certain age groups. Hypothesis 2 was confirmed showing that the effect of poverty on physical neglect was completely mediated by caregiver stress for the abandonment and safety/basic needs types of physical neglect. Implications of the results for research on the effects of poverty on child neglect, and for preventing child neglect are discussed. / Graduation date: 2012

貧窮既是一種客觀況，又是一種主觀心感受。既有的研究很少關注老年人自身關於貧窮的經驗，特別是缺乏華人社會背景下貧窮老人主觀經驗的研究。本研究試圖從個體的層面考察貧窮對於中國城市老人多重面向的負面影響，以及他們如何回應這些負面影響，在此基礎上為改善與貧窮老人有關的社會政策提出適切的建議。 / 基於這一研究目的，本研究從批判老年學和抗逆力的理論視角出發，採取建構主義範式和生命故事的研究取向，以中國北京的城市貧窮老人為例，選取17位城市貧窮老人為研究物件，深入研究中國城市貧窮老人的各種壓力，以及抗逆力的內外保護性因素回應這些壓力的機制及其所起到的作用。 / 研究發現，中國城市貧窮老人面臨經濟壓力、疾病與老化的壓力、逆反哺與照顧配偶的壓力，以及貧窮恥感的壓力。貧窮在城市老人的主觀經驗裡意味著多重壓力的相迭，這從主觀經驗的角度揭示了中國城市貧窮老人的多重弱勢。 / 作為抗逆力外在保護性因素的社會支持，它的實現機制因其類型的不同而相異。代際支持對提升抗逆力的作用受到代際團結和代際張力的共同影響；其他非正式支持對提升抗逆力的作用受到互惠關係的影響；社會政策的支持對提升抗逆力的作用受到人情倫理的雙重性和代群差異的影響。這些機制共同決定了貧窮老人的非正式支援日趨弱化，而社會政策和專業服務提供的正式支援有待加強。 / 作為貧窮老人抗逆力的內在保護性因素，工具性策略由獨立性的要求所驅動，意義創造遵循追尋自我價值和重構貧窮經驗這兩條路徑。意義創造在貧窮老人的內在保護性因素中發揮著更為根本性的作用。內外保護性因素的比較有助於我們識別城市貧窮老人中更脆弱的次群體。 / 基於這一研究發現，本研究在原有研究框架的基礎上，補充了貧窮老人的多重壓力和保護性因素的實現機制，擴展了貧窮老人抗逆力研究的研究框架。文章的最後提出了社會政策的具體建議。 / Poverty is both an objective condition and a kind of subjective psychological feeling. However, existing studies pay little attention to older people’s own experience of poverty, especially lacking of studies on subjective experience of the aged poor in the Chinese context. This research attempts to explore from the individual level, the multi-dimensional negative effects of poverty on the aged poor in urban China and how they respond to these impacts. On this basis, appropriate social policies were proposed to improve the living conditions of the aged poor. / Taking the constructivist position and life story approach, this study was conducted from the perspectives of resilience theory and critical gerontology and used the urban aged poor in Beijing, China as an example. Seventeen urban aged poor were selected as the sample for in-depth interview and their multiple stresses, and the mechanisms of internal and external protective factors of resilience in response to their stresses and their functions were investigated. / Research findings show that China’s urban aged poor suffer stresses from economic pressure, diseases and aging, taking care of their spouses, inverse nurturing, and shamefulness of poverty. Poverty means a combination of multiple stresses in the subjective experience of the urban poor elderly. This perspective reveals the multiple disadvantages of the Chinese urban aged poor. / Social support as the external protective factor of resilience, its implementation mechanisms are different by its types. The intergenational support in enhancing the function of resilience is influenced by intergenational solidarity and intergenational tension. Other informal social support in enhancing the function of resilience is affected by reciprocal relationship. Formal support from social policy in enhancing the function of resilience is influenced by the dual nature of interpersonal ethics as well as cohort differentiation. These mechanisms together determine that informal social support of the urban aged poor is gradually weakened. As a result, formal social support coming from social policy and professional social service has to be strengthened. / As one of the internal protective factors of resilience of the aged poor, the instrumental strategies are driven by the demands of independence. The other one of the internal protective factors, the creation of meaningfulness, develops towards two paths, one of which is in search of self-worthiness and the other reconstruction of experience of poverty. The significance of creation of meaningfulness in the internal protective factors of the aged poor exerts a more fundamental function. A combination of the internal and external protective factors can help us differentiate the more disadvantaged sub-group among the urban aged poor. / Based on the findings of the study, the original conceptual framework is reconstructed by supplementing the multiple stresses and the operating mechanisms of protective factors. This has expanded the research framework of studying resilience of the aged poor. Finally, some specific recommendations of social policy are provided. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 陳岩燕. / Thesis subitted: December 2012. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 456-499) / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in Chinese and English. / Chen Yanyan. / Chapter 第一章 --- 緒論 --- p.1 / Chapter 第一節 --- 研究背景 --- p.1 / Chapter 第二節 --- 研究目的與研究意義 --- p.11 / Chapter 第三節 --- 本文的結構 --- p.13 / Chapter 第二章 --- 文獻回顧 --- p.14 / Chapter 第一節 --- 貧窮老人研究的回顧 --- p.14 / Chapter 第二節 --- 與老年貧窮相關的社會政策與研究發現 --- p.49 / Chapter 第三節 --- 與貧窮老人相關的理論解釋 --- p.80 / Chapter 第四節 --- 現有研究的不足 --- p.125 / Chapter 第三章 --- 研究設計 --- p.132 / Chapter 第一節 --- 概念框架 --- p.132 / Chapter 第二節 --- 研究方法 --- p.143 / Chapter 第四章 --- 中国城市貧窮老人的多重壓力 --- p.183 / Chapter 第一節 --- 經濟壓力 --- p.183 / Chapter 第二節 --- 老化和疾病的壓力 --- p.187 / Chapter 第三節 --- 逆反哺和照顧配偶的壓力 --- p.202 / Chapter 第四節 --- 貧窮恥感的壓力 --- p.226 / Chapter 第五節 --- 多重壓力相疊 --- p.237 / Chapter 第五章 --- 貧窮老人與非正式社會支持 --- p.240 / Chapter 第一节 --- 貧窮老人與代際支持 --- p.240 / Chapter 第二節 --- 貧窮老人與擴展家庭的支持 --- p.259 / Chapter 第三節 --- 貧窮老人與鄰里支持 --- p.271 / Chapter 第四節 --- 貧窮老人與其他非正式支持 --- p.291 / Chapter 第六章 --- 貧窮老人與正式社會支持 --- p.297 / Chapter 第一節 --- 貧窮老人與社會政策的支持 --- p.297 / Chapter 第二節 --- 貧窮老人對待社會政策支持的例外個案 --- p.319 / Chapter 第三節 --- 社會政策基層執行者的支持 --- p.325 / Chapter 第四節 --- 其他的正式社會支持 --- p.336 / Chapter 第七章 --- 貧窮老人的工具性策略與意義創造 --- p.347 / Chapter 第一節 --- 貧窮老人的工具性策略 --- p.348 / Chapter 第二節 --- 貧窮老人的意義創造 --- p.372 / Chapter 第八章 --- 討論 --- p.410 / Chapter 第一節 --- 多重壓力：中國城市貧窮老人的多重弱勢 --- p.411 / Chapter 第二節 --- 外在保護性因素：社會支持的再審視 --- p.414 / Chapter 第三節 --- 內在保護性因素 --- p.435 / Chapter 第四節 --- 對貧窮老人抗逆力理論框架的補充 --- p.441 / Chapter 第九章 --- 社會政策的啟示 --- p.445 / Chapter 一、 --- 優勢為本的社會政策 --- p.445 / Chapter 二、 --- 支持家庭的社會政策 --- p.446 / Chapter 三、 --- 雙重權利系統的社會政策 --- p.447 / Chapter 四、 --- 適度普惠的社會政策 --- p.448 / Chapter 第十章 --- 總結 --- p.450 / Chapter 第一節 --- 總結 --- p.450 / Chapter 第二節 --- 本研究的貢獻與局限 --- p.453 / p.456 / 附錄 --- p.500 / Chapter 附錄1： --- 200-2050年中國各年齡段男、女性人口增長趨勢 --- p.500 / Chapter 附錄2： --- 北京市歷年社會保障相關標準（1994-2011） --- p.501 / Chapter 附錄3： --- 受訪者的訪談時間與合計訪談時長 --- p.502 / Chapter 附錄4： --- 2009年11月第一次訪談大綱 --- p.504 / Chapter 附錄5： --- 2010年9月第二次訪談大綱 --- p.507

The focus of this study was on the experiences of a small sample of local women who are HIVpositive and are living in poverty. The researcher was interested in exploring the psychological and social experiences of these women using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. This research aimed at giving these women a voice to express their first-hand, personal accounts of living with HIV in poverty. Data was analysed for meaningful units, which were interpreted inductively and hermeneutically, and categorised into super-ordinate themes. Six themes within the participants' experiences of living with HIV were determined, namely: (I) experiences of diagnosis, (2) disclosure experiences, (3) stigma, (4) ARV experiences, (5) experiences of social support and (6) poverty. This research found that after an HIV-positive diagnosis, most women experience a variety of emotional reactions. These reactions however seem to change overtime into positive acceptance of the HIV diagnosis. Most of the women in this study preferred to use partial disclosure than to fully disclose their HJV-positive status openly to families, friends and to their community. Reasons for not using full disclosure included fear of discrimination and stigma, which included a fear of being rejected or being blamed for their status and a fear of losing relationships. It was also evident from the findings that most of the women had experienced stigma directly and therefore partial disclosure was used as a coping mechanism to protect the self from further harm. It was also revealed that stigma not only has a negative impact on disclosure but also on social support and ARV experiences. Because ofHIV-related stigma, lack of social support was a struggle that almost all the women in this study had experienced. Lack of understandings about their medication also had a negative impact of the ARV experiences. Stigmas along with poverty are the major struggles that HIV -positive women have to deal with in their day to day living. The findings of this study reveal a need for further research in this experiential area as well as campaigns and education around issues such as stigma, medication, and emotional difficulties associated with HIV.