High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems appropriate for bulk power transfer to meet increasing power demands and ideal for interconnecting power systems with distant renewable sources of energy without any chances of loss synchronism, efficiency, and reliability. The main obstacle is however connected with the DC grid protection where the timely diagnosis of faults is critical to prevent any rapid built-up leading to failure of the power electronic devices. Monitoring the Power Quality (PQ) necessitates establishing novel criteria and techniques to deal with the abundance of data that are ever-growing with data flow from sensors and measuring units in the electric grid. This study developed a scalable and efficient clustering methodology for a transient waveform database from a HVDC station. The output could help HVDC Service better characterize the data and develop qualitative criteria for monitoring and analytics. The thesis expects to contribute towards a sustainable and reliable electric grid.

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The present work studies the disturbances created in the electric system of a pumped storage power plant, which is an hydraulic generation facility where the machines can work as turbines or pumps, by the operation of a static frequency converter (SFC). The SFC is used for starting the synchronous machines at the station when in the pump mode. During the starting process several equipment is connected to the SFC being possible to get affected by the disturbances generated. These disturbances mainly include the creation of transient overvoltages during the commutation of the semiconductor devices of the SFC and the introduction of harmonics in the network currents and voltages. This work analyzes the possible effects of the SFC operation over the station equipment based on computer simulations. For this purpose, the complete system was modeled and the starting process simulated in a computer transient simulator program. The work begins with a general review of the effects of electric disturbances over high voltage equipment and in particular of the disturbances generated by power electronics conversion equipment. Then the models for the different kind of equipment present in the system are discussed and formulated. The control system that governs the operation of the SFC during the starting process is analyzed later as well as the operation conditions. Once the model of the system is set up, the harmonic analysis of the electric network is done by frequency domain and time domain methods. Time domain methods are also employed for the analysis of the commutation transient produced by the SFC operation. Finally, the simulation results are used to evaluate the impact of the SFC operation on the station equipment, especially on the generator step up transformer. / Master of Science

Ce travail est le résultat d'une collaboration entre le laboratoire LAPLACE, la "Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli" (SUN) et la Société National des Chemins de fer Français SNCF. Le sujet de recherche concerne l'utilisation de dispositifs électroniques de puissance dans les sous stations ferroviaires 25kV/50Hz afin d’améliorer la qualité de l'énergie électrique. Dans le transport ferroviaire, le système d'électrification monophasé 25kV/50Hz est largement diffusé en particulier pour les lignes ferroviaires à grande vitesse. Bien qu'aujourd'hui les systèmes d’alimentation en courant continu soient encore largement utilisés, l'adoption du courant alternatif monophasé offre des avantages économiques pour les infrastructures d'environ 30% en termes d'investissement, d'exploitation et d'entretien. Initialement, compte tenu de la simplicité du circuit, il n'y avait aucune nécessité d'intégrer de l'électronique de puissance dans les sous stations. Toutefois, au cours de la décennie passée, l'intérêt pour ces équipements est apparu car ils peuvent apporter une solution d'optimisation du réseau lorsque le trafic augmente ou lorsqu’une nouvelle sous station est envisagée. Deux principaux types de dispositifs sont installés aujourd'hui sur le réseau ferré français : les compensateurs de puissance réactive et les compensateurs de déséquilibre de tension. Cette thèse présente de nouvelles topologies de compensateurs basées sur le concept d’impédances contrôlées par gradateur MLI. Comparées aux solutions existantes, ces topologies ont des caractéristiques particulièrement intéressantes en termes de pertes dans les semi-conducteurs et de volume des composants réactifs. Le manuscrit contient trois parties principales: La première partie présente le principe de l’électrification en 25kV/50Hz et souligne l’intérêt d’installer des moyens de compensation statique dans les sous stations. Après une description des solutions actuellement utilisées, le concept d’impédance contrôlée par gradateur MLI (CCI : Chopper Controlled Impedance ) est ensuite présenté. La deuxième partie du travail concerne l'utilisation du concept de CCI pour la compensation de puissance réactive. La sous-station SNCF de Revest est considérée comme cas d’étude. Celle-ci est équipée d'un transformateur monophasé de 60MVA dont le primaire est connecté à une ligne de transport 225kV. Deux topologies de compensateur de puissance réactive, basées sur des montages abaisseur ou élévateur de tension sont présentées. Le dimensionnement des gradateurs est effectué sur la base d'une campagne de mesures réalisée à la sous station. Des simulations numériques utilisant des formes d’ondes réelles de courant et de tension sont présentées. Des résultats expérimentaux effectués à la plateforme de test de la SNCF sur un prototype de 1,2MVAR permettent de valider le concept de CCI. La dernière partie du travail concerne le problème du déséquilibre de tension en amont de la sous station. Un circuit de Steinmetz « actif », toujours basée sur des gradateurs MLI, est présenté et étudié. La sous station SNCF d'Evron est alors considérée comme cas étude. Celle-ci comporte un transformateur de 32MVA et est connectée à une ligne de transmission 90kV. Les mesures effectuées sur le site permettent le dimensionnement du compensateur ainsi que l’utilisation des formes d'onde réelles de courant et de tension dans les simulations numériques. Une comparaison avec des solutions classiques basées sur des onduleurs 2 niveaux et 3 niveaux souligne les avantages de la solution proposée. Ainsi, les résultats des calculs et des simulations montrent que l'énergie stockée dans les éléments réactifs est réduite d’un facteur six et que les pertes dans les semi-conducteurs sont réduites de 40%. Des résultats expérimentaux obtenus sur une maquette de 1.5 kVA permettent de valider le principe du circuit de Steinmetz actif. / This work is the result of collaboration between the LAPLACE laboratory, the “Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli” (SUN) and the French national railways operator SNCF. The research topic treated herein concerns the use of power electronic devices in 25kV/50Hz railways substations to achieve power quality improvements. In railway transportation, single-phase 25kV-50Hz electrification system is widely diffused especially for high-speed railway applications. Although electrified DC systems are still widely applied, the adoption of AC single-phase system offers economical advantages for the infrastructures of about 30% in terms of investment, exploitation and maintenance. In early ages, due to its very simple diagram, there was no necessity to integrate power electronics in substations. However, for the last decade, the interest in power electronic equipments raised since they can provide the solution for network optimization when traffic increases or when a difficulty is foreseen for a substation implementation. Two types of devices are implemented today on the French Railway Network: Reactive Power compensators and Voltage Unbalance compensators. This thesis presents an investigation into new topologies based on the concept of “Chopper Controlled Impedances”(CCI). Compared to existing solutions, the new topologies show interesting features in terms of semi-conductor losses reduction and volume of reactive components. The manuscript is developed through three main parts: Firstly, the French railways system is introduced and the interest in installing power electronic compensators in substations is highlighted. After a brief description of currently used solutions, the CCI concept is presented: the use of Pulse Width Modulated AC Choppers allows achieving structures which behave as variable impedances. In the second part, the use of CCI structures in reactive power compensation is investigated. The SNCF substation of Revest is under study. It is equipped by a 60MVA single phase transformer with the primary side connected to a 225kV transmission line. Based on the step-down or step-up functioning mode of CCIs, two topologies of reactive power compensator are presented. The converter design is developed on the base of a measurement campaign carried out at the substation. Numerical simulations using real current and voltage waveforms are presented. Finally, experimental results carried out at the SNCF test platform on a 1.2MVAR prototype are shown. In the last part, the problem of voltage unbalance is treated. Using the concept of CCI, the feasibility of an active Steinmetz circuit based on AC choppers is explored. As a case study, the substation of Evron is considered. It is a 32MVA substation connected to a 90kV transmission line. Measurements carried out on the substation site allow the compensator design and the possibility to consider real waveforms for current and voltage in numerical simulations. A comparison with classical solution based on two levels VSI and three levels NPC-VSI highlights the advantages of the proposed solution. Calculation and simulation results show that the stored energy in reactive elements is reduced by a factor six whereas the semiconductor losses are 40% lower. Experimental results obtained on a scaled demonstrator (1.5 kVA) validate the principle of the active Steinmetz circuit.

O trabalho ressalta a importância do tema Qualidade da Energia (QE) e apresenta alguns dos diversos distúrbios responsáveis pelo seu comprometimento. Tais distúrbios, quando presentes em um dado sistema elétrico, podem causar sérios danos tanto aos equipamentos de medição e controle pertencentes ao fornecedor de energia, como também aos equipamentos mais sensíveis pertencentes aos usuários deste sistema. Os fenômenos mais freqüentes no estudo da QE foram destacados, bem como suas definições. Conhecidos estes fenômenos, implementou-se um algoritmo computacional, utilizando como ferramenta a transformada rápida de Fourier janelada (Windowed Fast Fourier Transform - WFFT) - TRFJ, para identificar e classificar estas perturbações em um dado sistema elétrico de distribuição. Para que o resultado fosse o mais próximo possível de uma situação real, utilizou-se para análise, um sistema elétrico real de distribuição da CPFL (Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz). Sobre o referido sistema elétrico foram simulados casos de afundamentos, elevações e oscilações de tensão, criando assim, um banco de dados para, posteriormente, podermos testar e validar o algoritmo computacional implementado, na identificação destes fenômenos. Este algoritmo permite variarmos tanto o tamanho da janela, quanto a freqüência amostral do sinal. Neste estudo em particular, utilizamos tamanhos de janelas de 1 ciclo e 1/2 ciclo, e freqüência amostral do sinal, de 7,68 kHz (inicialmente utilizada para obtenção do banco de dados), e 0,769 kHz, aproximadamente. Como resultados, obtivemos que o tamanho da janela de dados para esta implementação, não apresentou diferenças significativas na análise, quando comparados com os dados iniciais. Entretanto, observa-se um comportamento contrário com a variação da taxa amostral, ou seja, quanto menor a freqüência amostral empregada, maior a perda de informações importantes em relação ao sinal inicial. / The present work at lines the importance of Power Quality (PQ) and it presents some of the many disturbances related to it and its implications. Such disturbances, as presented in an electrical system, can cause serious damages in the measurements, in the control of power utility equipments, as well as in sensitive equipments. The most frequent phenomena in the study of PQ had been emphasized, as well as its definitions. Once these phenomena are known, a computational algorithm was implemented, using the Windowed Fast Fourier Transform - WFFT as a tool to identify and classify these disturbances, considering electrical distribution system. In order to have the best situation for the test, a real electrical distribution system from CPFL (Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz) utility was simulated. Some cases of voltage sag, voltage swell and oscillatory transient were simulated, creating a data base to test and validate the computational algorithm implemented. This algorithm allows changing the window length as the sample rate. For the proposed study, 1 cycle and 1/2 cycle as window length was analyzed with sample rate of 7,68 kHz (initially used for obtaining the data base), and 0,769 kHz. It was observed that the window length studied did not influence significantly the proposed analysis concerning PQ. However, concerning the sample rate, it was observed a deterioration of the analysis with the 0,769 kHz rate.

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um algoritmo computacional capaz de diagnosticar as condições operativas de transformadores de potência. As variáveis tomadas como base para classificar as condições apresentadas se referem às usualmente empregadas pela lógica de proteção diferencial, ou seja, a corrente diferencial e o conteúdo harmônico presente nos sinais em análise. Além disto, foi também verificada a relação entre alguns dos fenômenos associados à falta de qualidade da energia elétrica originados pelos consumidores conectados no secundário e refletidos ao primário do transformador. O algoritmo desenvolvido utilizou-se da Transformada Wavelet e de técnicas de inteligência artificial (Lógica Fuzzy e Redes Neurais Artificiais), com o objetivo de inferir sobre os relacionamentos supracitados. Todos os testes para validação da metodologia proposta foram realizados dispondo de um sistema elétrico simulado no software ATP (Alternative Transients Program). Os resultados encontrados denotam que, frente às condições analisadas, correntes diferenciais e conteúdo harmônico indesejado podem vir a surgir, fazendo com que a lógica implementada venha a diagnosticar erroneamente a condição de operação enfrentada. Os resultados avaliam ainda a propagação destas condições do secundário para o primário do transformador em análise. / This research aimed to develop an algorithm able to diagnose the operating conditions of power transformers. The variables considered to classify the presented conditions were the normally used by differential protection logic, i.e., the differential current and the harmonic content in the signals in analysis. Moreover, the relationship between some phenomena associated to a poor power quality originated from consumers connected to the secondary and reflect to the primary side of the transformer was also verified. In order to infer the relationships above mentioned, the developed algorithm used the Wavelet Transform and artificial intelligence techniques (Fuzzy Logic and Artificial Neural Networks). All the tests applied to validate the proposed methodology were performed making use of the ATP (Alternative Transients Program). In face of the analyzed conditions, the results show that differential currents and undesired harmonic content can arise and the implemented logic will erroneously diagnose the operation condition addressed. The results also illustrate the propagation of these conditions from secondary to primary side of the analyzed transformer.

O diagnóstico de eventos que afetam a qualidade da energia elétrica tem se tornado preocupação de magnitude mundial, em especial em dois temas importantes que são: a localização relativa da origem do evento (LROE) e a classificação automática da causa fundamental de eventos (CACFE). O primeiro está relacionado com a identificação da fonte do evento, isto é, a montante ou a jusante do medidor de qualidade de energia (MQE). O segundo pode ser dividido em dois grupos: a classificação das causas internas e das causas externas. As causas internas estão relacionadas a eventos produzidos pela operação do sistema elétrico (energização ou desenergização do sistema, energização de transformador, chaveamento de capacitores dentre outros), e as causas externas estão vinculadas a eventos produzidos por faltas externas ao sistema elétrico (contato com galhos de árvore, animais, descargas atmosféricas, dentre outros). Ambos os temas, LROE e CACFE, são abordados nesta tese de doutorado. Para classificar eventos por causas internas ou externas é necessário antes definir se realmente trata-se ou não de um evento, para o qual é imprescindível conhecer a LROE. Este último necessita de um processo de segmentação das formas de onda de tensão e corrente para funcionar de forma correta. A segmentação identifica segmentos transitórios e não transitórios nas formas de onda e contribui também na extração de características para os diferentes algoritmos de classificação. Neste sentido, neste trabalho de pesquisa é proposta uma metodologia de diagnóstico da qualidade de eventos, focada em LROE e CACFE. Para isto foram desenvolvidos diferentes algoritmos de segmentação, extração de características e classificação, sendo criada uma ferramenta computacional em MatLab® que inclui pré-processamento de sinais de tensão e corrente de um banco de dados real fornecido por uma concessionária do Estado de São Paulo. Além disto, foram propostos novos algoritmos de LROE com resultados satisfatórios quando comparados com outros dois disponíveis na literatura científica. Para as causas internas, dois novos índices são propostos para separar eventos produzidos por faltas e energização de transformadores. Finalmente, são propostos novos algoritmos de extração de características baseados na energia dos coeficientes de decomposição da transformada wavelet bem como o algoritmo à trous modificado. São propostos dois novos vetores de descritores de energia (VDE) baseados no primeiro segmento transitório do evento. Para a classificação destes eventos foi utilizado um algoritmo de indução de regras de decisão (CN2), que gera regras de simples implementação. Todos os métodos de classificação utilizados nesta tese estão baseados em regras, sendo seu desempenho avaliado por meio da matriz de confusão. / Diagnosing events that affect power quality have become a worldwide concern, especially with respect to two important issues related to the relative location of the event origin (RLEO) and automatic cause classification of events (ACCE). The first one is related to the identification of the event source, i.e. either upstream or downstream in relation to the power quality meter (PQM). The second one can be subdivided into two groups, namely the classification of internal causes and of external causes. Internal causes are related to events produced by power system operation (connection or disconnection of feeders, power transformer inrush, capacitor switching, amongst others) and external causes that are related to events produced by external faults to the power system (network contacts to tree branches, animals contact, atmospheric discharges, amongst others). Both topics, RLEO and ACCE, are herein considered. In order to classify events due to internal or external causes, one should first define whether it is an actual event, what demands the RLEO. This makes use of a segmentation process applied to the voltage and current waveforms. The segmentation identifies the transient and stationary segments within the waveforms, contributing also to the feature extraction for different classification algorithms. Based on the aforementioned, this research proposes a methodology to diagnose power quality events, focusing on RLEO and ACCE. Different algorithms of segmentation, feature extraction and classification were then developed by the use of a computational tool implemented in MatLab®, that considers also the preprocessing of voltage and current signals in a real data base which was made available by a distribution company in Sao Paulo State. Besides that, new RLEO algorithms have shown satisfactory results when compared to algorithms published in the scientific literature. As for the internal causes, two new indices were proposed in order to separate events produced by faults or by the connection of power transformers. New algorithms for feature extraction are proposed, which are based on the energy of decomposition coefficients of the wavelet transform as well as the modified à trous algorithm. Two vectors of energy descriptors are proposed, which are based on the first transient segment of the event. The classification of such events was carried out by an induction algorithm of decision rules (CN2), that generates easily implementable rules. All classification methods utilized in this thesis are based on rules and their performances are assessed by the confusion matrix.

Esta pesquisa apresenta um estudo investigativo da análise modal aplicada a Sistemas de Distribuição (SDs) frente às distorções harmônicas, no contexto da Qualidade da Energia Elétrica (QEE). A partir do método de análise da ressonância modal, foi conduzido um estudo investigativo para apontar quais barramentos são mais sensíveis e permitem uma melhor observação frente às distorções harmônicas. Vale adiantar que o método de análise de ressonância modal, o qual é fundamentado na decomposição espectral da matriz de admitância do sistema elétrico, já apresenta interessantes trabalhos voltados para sistemas de transmissão. O desafio desta pesquisa foi então investigar a sua aplicação para SDs com um direcionamento às distorções harmônicas, bem como ao seu monitoramento. Dentre os resultados encontrados no desenvolvimento da pesquisa, destaca-se um melhor entendimento do problema das distorções harmônicas, o qual permitiu evidenciar a sensibilidade e a observabilidade dos SDs testes frente ao problema definido no contexto da QEE. / This research presents an investigative study of the modal analysis applied to Distribution Systems (DSs) in the context of Power Quality (PQ) considering the harmonic distortions. From the modal resonance analysis, an investigative study was conducted to indicate which bus bars are more sensitive and allow better observation in face of harmonic distortions. It is worth mentioning that the method of modal resonance analysis, which is based on the spectral decomposition of the admittance matrix of the electric system, already presents interesting applications focused on transmission systems. The challenge of this research was to investigate its application to DSs focusing on harmonic distortions, as well as their monitoring. Among the observed results of the research development, a better understanding of the harmonic distortions problem was achieved, which made it possible to highlight the sensitivity and observability of the DSs tests against the problem defined in the context of the PQ.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre transformada Wavelet aplicada à qualidade da energia elétrica com o intuito de detectar, localizar e classificar eventuais distúrbios que ocorrem no sistema elétrico. Inicialmente é apresentada uma introdução sobre qualidade da energia, mostrando fatos, evoluções e explicando o conceito dos principais fenômenos que interferem na qualidade da energia do sistema elétrico brasileiro, devido, principalmente, à grande demanda de aparelhos eletrônicos produzidos atualmente. Em seguida é mostrada uma revisão dos principais métodos e modelos aplicados atualmente no mundo a respeito do assunto. A transformada Wavelet vem como uma grande ajuda nesta área de análise de sinais, já que é capaz de extrair simultaneamente informações de tempo e freqüência, diferentemente da transformada de Fourier. A simulação dos diversos distúrbios ocorridos no sistema foi realizada através do software ATP (Alternative Transients Program), cujas características seguem corretamente um sistema de distribuição real da concessionária CPFL. Os distúrbios de tensão gerados e analisados foram detectados e localizados através da técnica de Análise Multiresolução e, posteriormente, classificados, utilizando para isto o método da Curva de Desvio Padrão / This dissertation presents a study of Wavelet transform applied to power quality in order to detect, locate and classify disturbances that may occur in the power system. Initially an introduction of power quality is presented, showing facts, evolutions and explaining the concept of the main phenomena that interfere the on power quality of the brazilian power system, due to, mainly, a great demand for electronic devices produced nowadays. A revision of the main methods and models currently applied in the world regarding this subject is also show. The Wavelet transform comes as a great support in the area of signal assessment, as it can extract information about time and frequency simultaneously, differently from the Fourier transform. The simulation of the diverse disturbances occurred in the system was accomplished through ATP software (Alternative Transients Program), whose characteristics correctly follow a system of real distribution of CPFL eletric utility. The generated and analyzed voltage disturbances were detected and located by Multiresolution Analysis technique and later classified by the method of the Standard Deviation