Teenage pregnancy is an important health and social problem in South Africa. Despite declining trends of fertility rates in last two decades, the pregnancy among school girls remains steadily high in South Africa. Teenage pregnancy had negative impacts on various aspects of socio-economic well being of school girls. Aim: To determine the proportion of teenage pregnancy among high school girls and to identify the possible factors that influence teenage pregnancy in Mthatha region during the year 2009. Materials & Methods: This is an observational cross sectional, analytic study of teenage pregnancy conducted among high school teenage girls in the Mthatha region of South Africa. Result: A total of 1150 teenage girls from 15 to 19 years of ages responded from seven high schools in the Mthatha region of South Africa. In total 113 (10%) of teenage high school girls were currently mothers or had previously been pregnant. The proportions of those who had ever been pregnant increased significantly with age. The risk of falling pregnant among public high school teenage girls had two times higher compared to private high school teenage girls. Condoms were the most common method of contraception whereas the oral pills were the least common in practice. About half of teenage girls who had ever been pregnant had an abortion and of this one-third had had a backstreet/illegal abortion. The frequency of substance use was significantly higher among teenage girls who had ever been pregnant. A significant correlation was found between low socio-economic status, public schools and teenage pregnancy in this study. Conclusion: Teenage pregnancy is common among high school girls from 15 to 19 years of age in the Mthatha Region, South Africa. Poor socio-economic family conditions, lack of contraceptive use, early sexual maturation, risky behaviour, lack of knowledge about sexuality and reproductive health, multiple sexual partners and substance use were the common contributing factors of teenage pregnancy.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University 2005 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the current study was to undertake a phenomenological investigation on teenage motherhood and to learn how this experience forms part of the teenage mother's life. Using the snowball sampling method, five women aged between 26 and 35 years were selected to participate in the study. All the five women became mothers during their teenage years. Indepth interviews were conducted in Northern Sotho and Tshivenda depending on the language preference and fluency of the participant. The interviews were audio-taped, and later transcribed and translated. A phenomenological method of analysis was used to transform the original data into natural meaning units (NMUs) which were further interrogated so as to distil central sociological themes that were associated with the experience of teenage motherhood. Apart from the finding that the participants got pregnant when they were aged between 16 and 18, five sociological themes associated with teenage motherhood were identified. These are: • Lack of knowledge about sexual relationships contributes to teenage pregnancy and motherhood. • Early childbearing has a negative impact on the teenage mother's social relationships. • Teenage mothers tend to experience emotional problems after delivery of their babies. • Teenage motherhood has a long term disruptive effect on the teenage mother's educational and occupational opportunities. • Teenage motherhood leads to significant lifestyle changes for those who have been through the experience. In view of the above themes, sexual education both at school and at home, is suggested here as a more viable option to help minimise the risk of teenage motherhood in society. Whilst other options like abortion and the newly introduced child support grant are also available to the teenage mother, these are not considered favourable. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die huidige studie was om 'n fenomenologiese ondersoek oor tienermoederskap te doen en uit te vind hoe hierdie belewenis deel uitmaak van die tienermoeder se bestaan. Deur die sneeubaltoetsingsmetode is vyf vroue tussen die ouderdomme van 26 en 35 jaar gekies om deel te neem aan die studie. AI vyf vroue het tydens hulle tienerjare moeders geword. Diepteonderhoude is in Noord-Sotho en Venda gevoer, afhangende van die taalvoorkeur en -vlotheid van die deelnemer. Klankopnames is van die onderhoude gemaak wat later getranskribeer en vertaal is. 'n Fenomenologiese analisemetode is gebruik om die oorspronklike data na natuurlike betekeniseenhede (NMUs - natural meaning units) te herlei wat verder ondersoek is om sentrale sosiologiese temas geassosieer met die belewing van tienermoederskap te identifiseer. Behalwe vir die bevinding dat die deelnemers swanger geraak het toe hulle tussen die ouderdom van 16 en 18 jaar was, is vyf sosiologiese temas geassosieer met tienermoederskap geïdentifiseer. Hierdie temas is: • 'n Gebrek aan kennis oor seksuele verhoudings dra by tot die voorkoms van tienerswangerskappe en -moederskap. • Vroeë kinderbaring het 'n negatiewe impak op die tienermoeder se sosiale verhoudings. • Tienermoeders is geneig daartoe om emosionele probleme te ondervind na die geboortes van hulle babas. • Tienermoederskap het 'n langtermyn ontwrigtende effek op die tienermoeder se opvoedings- en werksgeleenthede. • Tienermoederskap lei tot betekenisvolle veranderinge in lewenstyl vir diegene wat die ondervinding deurgemaak het. Met inagneming van bogenoemde temas word hier voorgestel dat seksuele opvoeding beide op skool en by die huis 'n meer lewensvatbare opsie is om die risiko van tienermoederskap in die samelewing te verminder. Alhoewel ander opsies soos aborsies en die nuutingestelde toekennings van kinderonderhoud ook vir die tienermoeder beskikbaar is, word hierdie opsies nie as bevorderlik beskou nie.

Pregnancy in unmarried teenaged girls in America today is a growing concern to health care workers, educators, government officials and parents. Pregnancy during adolescence is not an issue because births to teenagers are increasing but because teenage pregnancy is no longer a societal option. This paper describes adolescent pregnancy from within the context of the subculture of adolescence and from the perspective of 16 pregnant, teenaged girls. The findings revealed a description of the life experiences of pregnant teenagers and introduced health-care issues that were not previously disclosed in other research studies of pregnant teens. The anthropological concepts of liminality, the double-bind, social labeling, and schizmogenesis served to guide the research. The concepts also helped to explain many behaviors and observations that were made of the informants throughout the research. An ethnographic approach using participant observation and ethnographic interviews was used to collect data from 16 pregnant, unmarried, teenaged girls in a large Southwestern, urban area. The informants ranged in age from 14 through 19 years and represented various backgrounds. Nine informants resided in a home for unwed, pregnant teenagers with the remainder residing in diverse locations. Data analyses occurred concurrently with data collection as part of an ongoing process. Data were ordered and transcribed within a framework designed to enhance thematic analysis. Transcribed interview and observational data were transferred onto the Ethnograph, a data-management software program. Data were coded using substantive and conceptual codes. Codes were linked according to patterns of association and frequency of occurrence which in turn led to the revealing of recurrent thematic patterns. In all, eight themes were revealed: (1) pregnancy is bad; (2) loneliness; (3) waiting it out; (4) dependency; (5) looking bad; (6) giving up baby; (7) losing what was; and (8) losing control. Thematic content also disclosed many inconsistencies and double-binds between the larger Western macroculture and adolescent subculture. Ethnographic themes and expressions of these themes provided new information for constructing health-related interventions with pregnant teens.

The study aimed to explore indigenous methods used to prevent teenage pregnancy from the perspective of traditional healers and traditional leaders. Furthermore, it aimed to explore with traditional healers and traditional leaders whether these methods have relevance today as form part of teenage pregnancy intervention. The data were collected through conducting semistructured interviews with ten traditional healers and five traditional leaders from the rural area of Umhlathuzane, Eshowe. The interviews were guided by an interview schedule which allowed the researcher to keep in touch with the purpose of the study while having face to face conversation with participants. All interviews were tape recorded and transcribed. The findings of the study revealed that traditional healers and traditional leaders are concerned by high rate of teenage pregnancy within the community. They felt strongly that ignoring indigenous cultural practices due to modernity has led to major non-resolvable social issues such as teenage pregnancy, spread of HIV/AIDS related diseases, poverty, drugs and alcohol misuse. The study findings also revealed that there is a high demand for re-instituting elders' and family roles in addressing the erosion of cultural practices and traditional methods. Traditional practices such as virginity testing, ukusoma (non-penetrative thigh sex), ukushikila (physical maturity examination) as well as traditional ceremonies were identified as indigenous methods previously used to groom girls and to prevent teenage pregnancy. Furthermore, traditional healers and traditional leader were totally against contemporary teenage pregnancy interventions and policies around this issue, and have mixed views towards the idea of combining modern and traditional methods for teenage pregnancy prevention. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made regard to collaboration between South African government and indigenous experts so that to deal effectively with teenage pregnancy. Recommendations for further research were also made. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

This study is an exploration of participants' experiences of being pregnant as young women. The study attempts to respond to the following set of questions: What are the issues that surround young women's pregnancy in general? How has history shaped the construction of womanhood, family, sexuality, motherhood and young women's pregnancy? What are the beliefs, perceptions and policies surrounding young women's pregnancy and that underlie responses to it and how might they (beliefs, perceptions and policies) be changed? How do issues of sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS among young women interact with issues of pregnancy? What are the ways in which schools, students and pregnant young women handle the issue of pregnancy, the continuation of pregnancy while schooling, and the implications or impact on the women's career trajectories? What are the experiences of women who have been pregnant at young ages with regard to their education (including the implications for it)? The study utilized a feminist research methodology to interact with women who have been pregnant while schooling. In addition, the study employed feminist research to establish the way in which the Basotho construct young women's pregnancy and to decipher the basis for the way this is constructed. A survey questionnaire was used to generate baseline data on the current interactions of school and young women's pregnancy. The storied lives of pregnant women have been shared in the study in their Lesotho context, a small mountain Kingdom completely land locked by South Africa. In-depth interviews were conducted with eight previously pregnant women while some past pregnant women were accessed by the use of focus group interviews. Additional interviews were conducted with principals, parents, siblings, proprietors, and partners of past pregnant young women. The researcher’s autobiography as a previously pregnant young woman was also used. The data in the study was analyzed at different levels. The first level was a narrative analysis of the eight stories, including the autobiography, which have been presented as their stories. Data from the focus group interviews was analyzed by picking up themes from the interviews and presented by discussing the themes together with some of the direct words of the participants to reinforce the discussion. A cross sectional narrative analysis was done for principals, parents, siblings, proprietors and partners. A narrative analysis was also done for a separate principals ' survey. At the final stage the study brings together information that relates to the research questions. The analysis of the experiences of young woman's pregnancy has been illuminated by the interrogation of who constructs these experiences, what the constructions are and what they are based upon. Each story in the study is unique and not dependent on another however, it is interesting to note that the way young women's pregnancy interacts with the family, partner, school and religion has much to do with the social construction. The sudden altering of context of "good girl" to "bad girl" causes a sharp shift of the pregnant young woman's experiences, thus the fluid nature of social construction is observable. The negotiations that occur as individuals struggle to handle pregnancy are brought forward. The study has not gone without observations on the challenges faced. The study has also moved from the context based possibilities to the way forward. / Theses (Ph.D.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

This study aims to explore and describe the effects of teenage pregnancy on the school life of teenage mothers who are learners at The High School. It also seeks to generate guidelines which could be useful for educators, programme planners, and other stakeholders involved in designing intervention programmes to help teenage girls avoid unintended pregnancies and those who have fallen into this trap, to be resilient. The sample consists of thirteen learners who were either pregnant or teenage mothers already. The participants were purposively chosen from grades 8-12, two from each grade and five from grade 12. This study uses a qualitative, contextual, descriptive design to investigate the effects the teenage pregnancy has on the lives of girls who fall pregnant while at school. It employs a case study methodology and the data collection instruments included face-to-face interviews and document analysis such as mark schedules and attendance registers. The findings revealed that teenage pregnancy causes tension in the girls' families; the physical changes and experience of pregnancy impacts on their school life; pregnancy causes emotional instability in the teenage girls' lives and their education is indeed disadvantaged. A positive aspect is that there is a chance to make up for the lost time if educational opportunities and support exist. The researcher recommends that there should be support for pregnant girls and teenage mothers within the school system. For this study to have more impact as well as influence policy makers and senior Departmental officials to act upon these recommendations, it is advisable that further research be conducted in other schools to explore the impact of teenage pregnancies on their school life in particular, and schools in general. / Theses (M.Ed.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2004.

My interest in teenage pregnancy began when I discovered pregnant girls in my class. Upon discussion with other educators in my school, I discovered that there were many pregnant girls in school. Thus began a journey in which I spent much time researching the topic. What I learnt along the way is that this is not a third world problem that affects certain race groups. It is a universal problem and if it is left to grow it will become the greatest social problem faced by the world. I believe that as educators we need to help curb the problem of teenage pregnancy. More importantly Secondary School educators need to become more aware of the debates surrounding teenage pregnancy for three reasons: (1) many of us may have pregnant or mothering teenagers in our classes and we need to understand where they are coming from and where they are heading towards, (2) we have the potential to help prevent teenage pregnancy by removing the cloak of ignorance that covers the issues surrounding sex and (3) teenage sexuality may be closely linked to the Aids pandemic that is moving like a veld fire across our country. We know that teenage pregnancy is not a new social problem. It has been around for centuries, but of late the severity of the problem has increased. It was this increase in teenage pregnancy that spurred me on to research why the youth of today, who have so much of sexual information made easily available to them, are still falling pregnant while at school. This study attempts to answer two critical questions. Firstly: "How do learners engage with factors that contribute to teenage pregnancy?" My study revealed that learners lack the knowledge or skills to avoid sex, they were ignorant of the different types of contraceptives, they were in denial that they could fall pregnant and they lacked the motivation to avoid early childbearing. Secondly, the critical question, "Why, in context of all the information present today on sex, do teenagers still fall pregnant?" Through the process of research it was found that teenagers engage in premarital sex because of the following reasons: peer pressure, they get caught up in the moment of passion and because they are bored and have nothing better to do. It is hoped that the analysis, findings and recommendations of this study will help curb the problem of teenage pregnancy. / Thesis (M.Ed.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

Every year, approximately 21 million girls aged 15 to 19 living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) become pregnant and over 12 million of these girls give birth. Complications from pregnancy are the leading cause of death for girls aged 15 to 19 in LMICs and adolescent mothers face an elevated risk of life-long morbidities due to pregnancy and childbirth. The risk of early childbearing and its associated consequences vary significantly depending on age, socioeconomic status, and place of residence. Adolescents affected by conflict or natural disasters are often recognized as one of the most vulnerable groups in this regard; among the countries with the highest adolescent birth rates globally, most are affected by conflict or fragility. This dissertation aimed to fill a critical gap in the literature on adolescent pregnancy in humanitarian settings. The three studies in this dissertation utilize qualitative and quantitative research to better understand the myriad drivers of adolescent pregnancy and, in the context of protracted conflict in Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), how exposure to armed conflict may or may not modify certain risk and protective factors. The findings of this dissertation confirm that risk and protective factors for adolescent pregnancy are numerous, interrelated, and complex; preventing early and unintended pregnancy requires multi-level interventions that build the protective assets of adolescents while also engaging with male partners, parents and caregivers, and community members. The research deepens this understanding by demonstrating the extent to which long-standing and deeply rooted sociocultural norms influence adolescents’ individual and inter-personal behaviors in diverse contexts, including settings affected by armed conflict. Thus, instead of considering how standalone risk and protective factors for adolescents differ depending on the context, the research highlights the importance of understanding linkages between environmental, inter-personal, and individual factors and the pathways through which these linkages influence reproductive health decision-making among adolescents. This dissertation also provides new evidence as to how the presence of armed conflict does not uniformly influence risk and protective factors for adolescent pregnancy. Instead, it finds that, in the case of DRC, underlying social norms and differences in social, demographic, and economic characteristics outweigh the effect of armed conflict on incidence of adolescent pregnancy. This finding does not mean that armed conflict does not have any impact on adolescent pregnancy; rather, it confirms the need for continued research in different humanitarian contexts and informs how to apply best practices from development settings to improve sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes among adolescents affected by humanitarian crises. Meeting the SRH needs of adolescents requires going beyond service provision and understanding the numerous, interrelated risk and protective factors that exist at the individual, inter-personal, and community levels. Situations of conflict and displacement may present additional complexities for understanding and meeting the SRH needs of adolescents. However, this dissertation shows the feasibility of conducting research and utilizing existing data to understand some of the root causes of adolescent pregnancy in a conflict-affected setting. Moreover, the studies highlight how more robust evidence can challenge some of our longstanding assumptions about adolescents affected by humanitarian crises. Continued rigorous research and taking the time to listen to adolescents and their communities can lead to more responsive adolescent SRH programs and services that contribute to adolescents’ healthy transitions to adulthood.

The purpose of this research was to measure attitudinal differences between pregnant and nonpregnant teenagers. The sample was comprised of 192 junior and senior high school students. The pregnant group consisted of 87 teenagers enrolled in a Continuing Education Program for pregnant teens. The non-pregnant group was enrolled in a regular junior and senior high school. Comparisons were made of motivations for parenthood, romantic love attitudes and perception of need satisfaction. Analysis of Variance, one-way classification, was used to test the significance of the differences between the means of the two groups for each of the three variables. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were computed to determine the degree in relationship among variables. / Ph. D.

Text in Afrikaans / Die politieke struktuur van antieke Egipte en ons eie politieke geskiedenis het meegebring dat aspekte rakende die vrou, vir baie jare oor die hoof gesien was, veral in die literatuur. Met antieke Egipte, waar mans hoofsaaklik verantwoordelik vir die samestelling van geskrewe materiaal was, en in Suid-Afrika waar daar in navorsing meer op onderwerpe wat mans interesseer gefokus was, het daar soveel vrae rakende die vrou onbeantwoord gebly. Die mans kon nie, het nie of wou nie, verslag doen oor wat gedurende swangerskap en baring gebeur het nie. Met behulp van ‘n uitgebreide literatuurstudie (wat bronne uit die geskiedenis, argeologie, antropologie, medisyne, wetenskap, ikonografie, kunste, argitektuur, taalkunde, astronomie, sielkunde, mitologie, tuinbou ensovoorts ingesluit het) is ontdek dat daar, in antieke Egiptiese geskrifte en uitbeeldings, baie oor swangerskap en baring gekommunikeer is. Die inligting is net nie altyd in die konteks of plekke waar ‘n mens dit sou verwag nie. Manlike skrywers het argeologiese inligting vanuit hulle manlike verwysingsraamwerk geïnterpreteer. Die meerderheid inligting oor swangerskap en baring in antieke Egipte, is dus in die verlede òf oor die hoof gesien, òf dit is vanuit ‘n manlike perspektief geïnterpreteer. Belangrike betekenisse het so verlore geraak. Hierdie studie is onderneem om lig op swangerskap en baring in antieke Egipte te werp. ‘n Grondige kennis van die vroulike fisiologie en -denkpatrone is met ‘n uitgebreide studie van die gebruike, tradisies en gelowe van antieke Egipte gekombineer om die bestaande poel van kennis op te helder. / Due to the political structure of ancient Egypt, as well as in our own political history, female matters have been overlooked for many years, especially in literature. With ancient Egypt, where mainly men were responsible for written material, and in South Africa where research, in the past, focused mainly on topics of interest to men, many questions regarding women remained unanswered. Men could not, did not, or didn’t want to report on what happens during pregnancy and birth. The research of extensive literature sources (including historical, archaeological, anthropological, medical, scientific, iconographical, art, architectural, linguistic, astronomical, physiological, mythological, horticultural and other sources) indicates that the ancient Egyptian writings and depictions contained information about pregnancy and birth. In the past most information about pregnancy and birth in ancient Egypt was either overlooked or interpreted from a male perspective. Thus important meanings and interpretations got lost. The aim of this study is to shed light on pregnancy and birth in ancient Egypt. A current thorough knowledge of female physiology and thought patterns was combined with an extensive study of practices, traditions and beliefs in ancient Egypt to elucidate the existing pool of knowledge. / Biblical Archaeology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Biblical Archaeology)