As the world's nuclear reactors approach the end of their originally planned lifetimes and seek license extensions, which would allow them to operate for another 20 years, accurate information regarding neutron radiation exposure is more important than ever. Structural components such as the reactor pressure vessel (RPV) become embrittled by neutron irradiation, reducing their capability to resist crack growth and increasing the risk of catastrophic failure. The current dosimetry approaches used in these high flux environments do not provide real-time information. Instead, radiation dose is calculated using computer simulations, which are checked against dose readings that are only available during refueling once every 1.5-2 years. These dose readings are also very expensive, requiring highly trained technicians to handle radioactive material and operate specialized characterization equipment. This dissertation describes the development of a novel neutron radiation dosimeter based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) that not only provides accurate real-time dosimetry, but also does so at very low cost, without the need for complex instrumentation, highly trained operators, or handling of radioactive material. Furthermore, since this device is based on radiation damage rather than radioactivation, its readings are time-independent, which is beneficial for nuclear forensics. In addition to development of a novel dosimeter, this work also provides insight into the particularly under-investigated topic of the effects of neutron irradiation of carbon nanotubes. This work details the fabrication and characterization of carbon nanotube based neutron and gamma radiation dosimeters. They consist of a random network of CNTs, sealed under a layer of silicon dioxide, spanning the gap between two electrodes to form a conductive path. They were fabricated using conventional wafer processing techniques, making them intrinsically scalable and ready for mass production. Electrical properties were measured before and after irradiation at several doses, demonstrating a consistent repeatable trend that can be effectively used to measure dose. Changes to the microstructure were investigated using Raman spectroscopy, which confirmed that the changes to electrical properties are due to increasing defect concentration. The results outlined in this dissertation will have significant impacts on both the commercial nuclear industry and on the nanomaterials scientific community. The dosimeter design has been refined to the point where it is nearly ready to be deployed commercially. This device will significantly improve accuracy of RPV lifetime assessment while at the same time reducing costs. The insights into the behavior of CNTs in neutron and gamma radiation environments is of great interest to scientists and engineers studying these nanomaterials. / Ph. D.

This thesis investigated the different aspects and mechanisms of leak-before-break (LBB) assessment. The main objective was to improve the understanding of the transition between surface and through wall defects. While existing procedures generally idealise the through-wall crack into a rectangular shape, in reality a crack propagates with a shape depending on the loading. Comparison between the related solutions from established procedures have been undertaken. The apparent variation depending on the solutions used in the assessment has been highlighted. Two different methodologies have been employed to investigate the transition of flaw: (i) non-ideal through-wall and (ii) surface-breaking flaw propagation. The first approach consists of numerical models of non-idealised flaws in order to assess the effect on LBB parameters. For the second approach, experiments have been first carried out to visualise the shape of defect growths. To further study surface-breaking flaws, both experimental and numerical studies were performed. Fatigue tests on deeply notched plates with two crack aspect ratios were carried out. Strain evolutions on the back surface were recorded along the axes parallel and perpendicular to the crack. Numerical models have been prepared to investigate a larger scope. Behaviour of growing surface-breaking defects was examined. Based on the work conducted in this research, the major findings can be summarised as follows: - The existing solutions to carry out a LBB assessment using available procedures were reviewed and discussed. For axial flaws, SIF solutions were found similar and in good agreement with FEA values. Reference stress solutions showed significant difference between BS 7910 and API 579-1/ASME FFS-1. When compared to experimental data, API's solutions were able to distinguish between leak and break cases. - Flaw geometry assumption for through-wall crack yet to become idealised did not always reflect the actual behaviour, especially for COA calculation. In this case, FEA can be used as a good predictive tool for LBB to estimate margins when assessing leak rate. - The experiment using metallic specimens showed that high stress/strain on back surface would provide a good estimate of the crack propagation as it approached break-through. This offers a more accurate monitoring mechanism. Strain-mapping devices such as gauges could be used.

No description available.

The formation of nano–sized precipitates is considered to be the origin of hardening and embrittlement of ferritic steel used as structural material for pressure vessels of nuclear reactors, since these nanoclusters hinder the motion of dislocations within the grains of the polycrystalline bcc–Fe matrix. Previous investigations showed that these small precipitates are coherent and may consist of Cu, Ni, other foreign atoms, and vacancies. In this work a combination of on–lattice simulated annealing based on Metropolis Monte Carlo simulations and off–lattice relaxation by Molecular Dynamics is applied in order to determine the structure, energetics and thermodynamics of coherent clusters in bcc–Fe. The most recent interatomic potentials for Fe–Cu–Ni alloys are used. The atomic structure and the formation energy of the most stable configurations as well as their total and monomer binding energy are calculated. Atomistic simulation results show that pure (vacancy and copper) as well as mixed (vacancy-copper, copper-nickel and vacancy-copper-nickel) clusters show facets which correspond to the main crystallographic planes. Besides facets, mixed clusters exhibit a core-shell structure. In the case of v_lCu_m, a core of vacancy cluster coated with copper atoms is found. In binary Cum_Ni_n, Ni atoms cover the outer surface of copper cluster. Ternary v_lCu_mNi_n clusters show a core–shell structure with vacancies in the core coated by a shell of Cu atoms, followed by a shell of Ni atoms. It has been shown qualitatively that these core–shell structures are formed in order to minimize the interface energy between the cluster and the bcc-Fe matrix. Pure nickel consist of an agglomeration of Ni atoms at second nearest neighbor distance, whereas vacancy-nickel are formed by a vacancy cluster surrounded by a nickel agglomeration. Both types of clusters are called quasi-cluster because of their non-compact structure. The atomic configurations of quasiclusters can be understood by the peculiarities of the binding between Ni atoms and vacancies. In all clusters investigated Ni atoms may be nearest neighbors of Cu atoms but never nearest neighbors of vacancies or other Ni atoms. The structure of the clusters found in the present work is consistent with experimental observations and with results of pairwise calculations. In agreement with experimental observations and with recent results of atomic kinetic Monte Carlo simulation it is shown that the presence of Ni atoms promotes the nucleation of clusters containing vacancies and Cu. For pure vacancy and pure copper clusters an atomistic nucleation model is established, and for typical irradiation conditions the nucleation free energy and the critical size for cluster formation have been estimated. For further application in rate theory and object kinetic Monte Carlo simulations compact and physically–based fit formulae are derived from the atomistic data for the total and the monomer binding energy. The fit is based on the structure of the clusters (core-shell and quasi-cluster) and on the classical capillary model.

Gegenstand des Vorhabens im Rahmen der WTZ mit Russland ist die Versprödung des Reaktordruckbehälters infolge der Strahlenbelastung mit schnellen Neutronen im kernnahen Bereich. Um den Einfluss von bestrahlungsinduzierten Gitterdefekten auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften zu ermitteln, wurden analytische Berechnungen zum Einfluss von Hindernissen auf die Beweglichkeit von Versetzungen und damit auf die Ausbildung einer plastischen Zone an der Rissspitze durchgeführt. Es wird demonstriert, dass sich die an der Rissspitze entstehenden Versetzungen an dem Hindernis (bestrahlungsinduzierte Punktdefekte) aufstauen. In Abhängigkeit der Rissbelastung KI und der Entfernung des Hindernisses von der Rissspitze werden die Versetzungsdichte und das durch den Versetzungsstau verursachte Spannungsfeld berechnet. Mit Hilfe von Experimenten zur Neutronenkleinwinkelstreuung (SANS - small angle neutron scattering) an verschiedenen WWER-Stählen und Modelllegierungen wurden Größenverteilungen und die Volumenanteile der strahleninduzierten Defekte für verschiedene Bestrahlungszustände (Fluenzen, Bestrahlungstemperaturen) ermittelt. Es wurde gezeigt, dass sich die strahleninduzierte Werkstoffschädigung durch Wärmebehandlung weitgehend wieder ausheilen lässt. Nach der thermischen Ausheilung ist der Werkstoff bei erneuter Bestrahlung weniger anfällig für strahleninduzierte Defekte. Die Ergebnisse der SANS-Untersuchungen wurden mit der Änderung der mechanischen Eigenschaften (Härte, Streckgrenze und Sprödbruchübergangstemperatur) korreliert. Mit der kinetischen Gitter-Monte-Carlo-Methode wurden numerische Sensitivitätsstudien zum Einfluss des Cu-Gehalts auf die Stabilität von Defekt-Clustern durchgeführt. Die Berechnungen zeigen, dass die Anwesenheit von Cu-Atomen zur Bildung von langlebigen Defekten führt. Dabei werden Leerstellen in Cu/Leerstellen-Cluster eingefangen. Leerstellen in reinem Eisen sind bei Bestrahlungstemperaturen von 270 °C dagegen nicht stabil, die Lebensdauer liegt zwischen 0.01 s und 1 s. Die kritische Cu-Konzentration, ab welcher stabile Defekte entstehen, beträgt ca. 0.1 Masseprozent.

No description available.

Defect-driven transport of impurities plays a key role in the microstructure evolution of alloys, and has a great impact on the mechanical properties at the macroscopic scale. This phenomenon is greatly enhanced in irradiated materials because of the large amount of radiation-induced crystal defects (vacancies and interstitials). For instance, the formation of nanosized solute clusters in neutron-irradiated reactor pressure vessel (RPV) ferritic steels has been shown to hinder dislocation motion and induce hardening and embrittlement. In Swedish RPV steels, this mechanical-property degradation is enhanced by the high content of manganese and nickel impurities. It has been suggested that the formation of Mn-Ni-rich clusters (which contain also Cu, Si, and P) might be the outcome of a dynamic process, where crystal defects act both as nucleation sites and solute carriers. Solute transport by point defects is therefore a crucial mechanism to understand the origin and the dynamics of the clustering process. The first part of this work aims at modeling solute transport by point defects in dilute iron alloys, to identify the intrinsic diffusion mechanisms for a wide range of impurities. Transport and diffusion coefficients are obtained by combining accurate ab initio calculations of defect transition rates with an exact mean-field model. The results show that solute drag by single vacancies is a common phenomenon occurring at RPV temperature (about 300 °C) for all impurities found in the solute clusters, and that transport of phosphorus and manganese atoms is dominated by interstitial-type defects. These transport tendencies confirm that point defects can indeed carry impurities towards nucleated solute clusters. Moreover, the obtained flux-coupling tendencies can also explain the observed radiation-induced solute enrichment on grain boundaries and dislocations. In the second part of this work, the acquired knowledge about solute-transport mechanisms is transferred to kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) models, with the aim of simulating the RPV microstructure evolution. Firstly, the needed parameters in terms of solute-defect cluster stability and mobility are calculated by means of dedicated KMC simulations. Secondly, an innovative approach to the prediction of transition rates in complex multicomponent alloys is introduced. This approach relies on a neural network based on ab initio-computed migration barriers. Finally, the evolution of the Swedish RPV steels is simulated in a "gray-alloy" fashion, where impurities are introduced indirectly as a modification of the defect-cluster mobilities. The latter simulations are compared to the experimental characterization of the Swedish RPV surveillance samples, and confirm the possibility that solute clusters might form on small interstitial clusters. In conclusion, this work identifies from a solid theoretical perspective the atomic-transport phenomena underlying the formation of embrittling nanofeatures in RPV steels. In addition, it prepares the ground for the development of predictive KMC tools that can simulate the microstructure evolution of a wide variety of irradiated alloys. This is of great interest not only for reactor pressure vessels, but also for many other materials in extreme environments. / <p>QC 20151123</p>

Detta examensarbete har utförts i samarbete med Fagerström Industrikonsult AB i Helsingborg. Fagerström Industrikonsult AB är ett ingenjörsföretag som har specialiserat sig på mekaniska och mekatroniska produkter inom flera branchområden. Ett av företagets tidigare projekt, som bland annat bygger på tryckbärande kärl och som kommer återanvändas för ett nytt projekt, är i behov av en uppdaterad analys mot utmattningsbrott.För att en tryckbärande utrustning skall kunna säljas och användas inom Europa, måste tillverkarna följa det Europeiska direktivet 97/23/EG, även kallat PED-direktiv. Detta direktiv sätter regler för konstruktion, tillverkning, märkning och kontroll. I Sverige finns denna beskrivning i Arbetsmiljöverkets författnings-samling (AFS 1999:4 2011). För att uppfylla alla de konstruktionsmässiga och tillverkningsmässiga krav på tryckkärlet som ställs i PED direktivet, så måste harmoniserade standarder användas. I detta arbete används tryckkärlsstandarden (SS-EN 13445-3: 2014) som sätter regler för design och verifiering av tryckbärande anordningar.Ett av projekten som finansierats av den Europeiska kommissionen, visade att 25% av alla tryckbärande anordningars haverier beror på utmattning. Tryckkärl är den typ av tryckbärande anordning, som är mest utsatt för skador orsakade av utmattning. Utmattningsbrott har varit känt sedan början på 1800-talet och man har länge studerat detta fenomen. Man har efter lång tids arbete hittat metodik för att ta fram analytiska modeller och prediktionstekniker samt säkra och noggranna livslängdsberäkningar för stålkonstruktioner. Fagerström Industrikonsult AB söker idag en metod för att utföra utmattningsanalys på tryckkärl i enlighet med tryckkärlsstandarden där linjärstatisk analys utförs med finita elementmetoden. Företaget eftersträvar också mer kunskap inom ämnet för att ge konstruktörerna bättre kännedom om utmattningsproblematiken samt ge möjlighet att redan i konstruktionsstadiet kunna sätta rimliga krav på tillverkning ur mekaniskt utmattningsperspektiv. / This master thesis has been carried out in collaboration with Fagerström Industrikonsult AB in Helsingborg. Fagerström Industrikonsult AB is an engineering company, specialized in mechanical and mechatronic products across a wide range of industry segments. One of the company's previous project, which is among other sub-products based on pressurized vessels, and that will be reused for a new project, needs an updated analysis against fatigue failure.In order to sell or use a pressurized equipment in Europe, the manufacturers must comply with the European Directive 97/23/EC, also called PED-directive. This directive sets the rules for design, production, marking and inspections. In Sweden, this directive is described in “Arbetsmiljöverkets Författningssamling” (AFS 1999:4 2011). In order to meet all the design and manufacturing requirements for pressure vessels that are required by the PED Directive, it is required to use harmonized standards. In this thesis, pressure vessel standard (SS-EN 13445-3: 2014) is used, which sets the rules for design and verification of pressure vessel.One of the projects funded by the European Commission, showed that 25 % of all pressure equipment failure are caused by fatigue. Pressure vessel is one type of these pressure equipment, which is most vulnerable to damage caused by fatigue. Fatigue failure has been known since the beginning of 19th century and this phenomenon has been studied for a long time. Under this extensive period of time, methods have been succefully developed for analytical models and prediction techniques as well as safe and accurate life calculations for steel structures. Fagerström Industrikonsult AB is today seeking a method to perform fatigue analysis of pressure vessels in accordance with European pressure vessel standard, where the linear static analysis is performed using the finite element method. The company is also pursuing more knowledge of the subject so its designers have more understanding of fatigue phenomena in order to be able to set reasonable requirements during design stage for production and in order to prevent this phenomena.

Vasos de pressão e tubulações são equipamentos essenciais em industrias químicas, petroquímicas, refino de petróleo, entre outras. A operação segura deste tipo de equipamento é um fator determinante, visto que falhas podem variar desde grandes perdas financeiras até consequências catastróficas. Avaliação de descontinuidades encontradas em inspeções podem ser realizadas através de metodologias de fitness for service, as quais são baseadas na mecânica da fratura, que teve grande desenvolvimentos nos últimos 40 anos. Estas metodologias são consagradas como sendo seguras para garantir a integridade de equipamentos em operação. Este trabalho utilizará primeiramente a metodologia de “fitness for service” empregando o guia BS7910 para avaliar um caso de um bocal de oito polegadas de diâmetro unido a um casco de dezesseis polegadas de diâmetro com uma grande descontinuidade do tipo falta de penetração em sua solda. A metodologia de fitness for service será comparada com o resultado do teste experimental, o qual foi realizado através de um teste hidrostático destrutivo monitorado através do ensaio de emissão acústica. Por fim, será realizada uma análise não linear utilizando não linearidade física e geométrica através do método de elementos finitos. A comparação dos resultados numéricos, experimentais e os analíticos obtidos pela aplicação da BS7910 permitiram a obtenção de várias conclusões que são expostas neste trabalho. A metodologia de ajuste ao uso utilizando a BS7910 foi conservativa para o caso estudado. O modo de falha dominante utilizando a BS7910 foi o colapso plástico que foi coerente com o teste experimental. O ensaio de emissão acústica não teve correlação entre a energia acumulada dos sinais captados e a criticidade de descontinuidades entre um bocal e um tampo, o que salientou que para aplicações semelhantes os dados devem ser analisados cuidadosamente uma vez que regiões sujeitas a colapso plástico como no caso do bocal estudado podem emitir sinais de menor intensidade que descontinuidades onde existe a interação entre os modos de fratura e colapso plástico. A análise não linear utilizando não linearidades física e geometria teve o resultado 5,8% maior que a pressão de ruptura no teste experimental que foi de 14,7MPa, o que pode ser considerado um resultado com um bom grau de aproximação. / Pressure vessels and pipes are essential equipment in the chemical, petrochemical, petroleum refining, among others. The safety operation of this equipment is an important aspect, since failures can vary from large financial losses to catastrophic consequences. Evaluation discontinuity found in inspections can be perfomed by fitness for service methodology which is based on fracture mechanics, which had great developments in the last 40 years. These methodologies are known as being the best way to ensure the integrity of equipment while in operation. This work first uses the fitness for service methodology according BS7910 guide to evaluate lack of weld penetration in eight-inch nozzle attached to a shell with sixteen inches in diameter. The methodology of fitness for service was compared with the experimental test result, which was performed by a destructive hydrostatic test monitored by acoustic emission test. Finally, finite element method was performed using nonlinearity physical and geometric tecniques. The comparison of numerical, experimental and analytical results obtained by the application of BS7910 allowed us to obtain several conclusions that are exposed in this work. The methodology using the BS7910 was conservative for the case study. The dominant failure mode using the BS7910 was the collapse of plastic that was consistent with the experimental test. The acoustic emission technique had no correlation between the stored energy of the picked up signals and criticality of discontinuities between a nozzle and a head, which pointed out that for similar applications data must be analyzed carefully since in regions subjected to plastic collapse such as in the case studied nozzle can generate signals of lower intensity that discontinuities where there is an interaction between the modes of fracture and plastic collapse. The nonlinear analysis result using physics and geometry nonlinearities was 5.8% higher than the rupture pressure of the experimental test was 14.7 MPa, being considered a result with a good degree of accuracity.

Vasos de pressão e tubulações são equipamentos essenciais em industrias químicas, petroquímicas, refino de petróleo, entre outras. A operação segura deste tipo de equipamento é um fator determinante, visto que falhas podem variar desde grandes perdas financeiras até consequências catastróficas. Avaliação de descontinuidades encontradas em inspeções podem ser realizadas através de metodologias de fitness for service, as quais são baseadas na mecânica da fratura, que teve grande desenvolvimentos nos últimos 40 anos. Estas metodologias são consagradas como sendo seguras para garantir a integridade de equipamentos em operação. Este trabalho utilizará primeiramente a metodologia de “fitness for service” empregando o guia BS7910 para avaliar um caso de um bocal de oito polegadas de diâmetro unido a um casco de dezesseis polegadas de diâmetro com uma grande descontinuidade do tipo falta de penetração em sua solda. A metodologia de fitness for service será comparada com o resultado do teste experimental, o qual foi realizado através de um teste hidrostático destrutivo monitorado através do ensaio de emissão acústica. Por fim, será realizada uma análise não linear utilizando não linearidade física e geométrica através do método de elementos finitos. A comparação dos resultados numéricos, experimentais e os analíticos obtidos pela aplicação da BS7910 permitiram a obtenção de várias conclusões que são expostas neste trabalho. A metodologia de ajuste ao uso utilizando a BS7910 foi conservativa para o caso estudado. O modo de falha dominante utilizando a BS7910 foi o colapso plástico que foi coerente com o teste experimental. O ensaio de emissão acústica não teve correlação entre a energia acumulada dos sinais captados e a criticidade de descontinuidades entre um bocal e um tampo, o que salientou que para aplicações semelhantes os dados devem ser analisados cuidadosamente uma vez que regiões sujeitas a colapso plástico como no caso do bocal estudado podem emitir sinais de menor intensidade que descontinuidades onde existe a interação entre os modos de fratura e colapso plástico. A análise não linear utilizando não linearidades física e geometria teve o resultado 5,8% maior que a pressão de ruptura no teste experimental que foi de 14,7MPa, o que pode ser considerado um resultado com um bom grau de aproximação. / Pressure vessels and pipes are essential equipment in the chemical, petrochemical, petroleum refining, among others. The safety operation of this equipment is an important aspect, since failures can vary from large financial losses to catastrophic consequences. Evaluation discontinuity found in inspections can be perfomed by fitness for service methodology which is based on fracture mechanics, which had great developments in the last 40 years. These methodologies are known as being the best way to ensure the integrity of equipment while in operation. This work first uses the fitness for service methodology according BS7910 guide to evaluate lack of weld penetration in eight-inch nozzle attached to a shell with sixteen inches in diameter. The methodology of fitness for service was compared with the experimental test result, which was performed by a destructive hydrostatic test monitored by acoustic emission test. Finally, finite element method was performed using nonlinearity physical and geometric tecniques. The comparison of numerical, experimental and analytical results obtained by the application of BS7910 allowed us to obtain several conclusions that are exposed in this work. The methodology using the BS7910 was conservative for the case study. The dominant failure mode using the BS7910 was the collapse of plastic that was consistent with the experimental test. The acoustic emission technique had no correlation between the stored energy of the picked up signals and criticality of discontinuities between a nozzle and a head, which pointed out that for similar applications data must be analyzed carefully since in regions subjected to plastic collapse such as in the case studied nozzle can generate signals of lower intensity that discontinuities where there is an interaction between the modes of fracture and plastic collapse. The nonlinear analysis result using physics and geometry nonlinearities was 5.8% higher than the rupture pressure of the experimental test was 14.7 MPa, being considered a result with a good degree of accuracity.