Paternal incest is the intimate sexual contact between biological, step or foster fathers and their children. These father-figures include the live-in partners of the non-offending mother. The actual incidence of paternal incest in South Africa is not known; however, the South African Police Services report the incidence of incest in the Western Cape for 2011/2012 to be the second highest in South Africa. When children reveal the incest to any person, this is called disclosure. After disclosure and with the removal of the paternal figure from the family unit, the mother or grandmother is responsible for the sole care of the child-victim and becomes the primary caregiver. However, in the South African context it is traditionally accepted that the grandmother assumes the role of primary caregiver of the child where the child’s mother and/or father are unable to fulfil their parental role adequately. Therefore in this study, “primary caregivers” refers to mothers and maternal grandmothers. In the South African context, limited studies have been done that explore the experiences of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest. There is also a lack of information on how to support these primary caregivers in the abovementioned context. The aim of this study was firstly to explore the experiences of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest and secondly to use these experiences to suggest guidelines that may be utilised by practitioners (such as social workers and registered counsellors) to develop support programmes for these caregivers. The research was conducted at a non-profit organisation in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, that provides psychosocial services and where cases of paternal incest are referred for intervention. A qualitative, phenomenological research design was applied in this study to obtain rich data. Six primary caregivers were chosen through purposive sampling, on the basis that their children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest within the last five years. Of these, four were mothers and two were maternal grandmothers who were responsible for the children. Data was collected through in-depth interviews and was analysed thematically. Two main themes emerged from the study. The first theme involved reactions to the disclosure and its aftermath, which encompassed emotional, cognitive and physiological reactions that are similar to secondary traumatisation. The second theme was coping strategies that emerged to deal with the disclosure and its aftermath, which encompassed effective coping strategies (behavioural coping strategies to actively solve problems and the presence of social support), unhealthy or negative coping strategies (behavioural coping strategies of avoidance) and threats to coping (a lack of social support). The contribution of this study lies in the suggestion of guidelines for the support of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest. These guidelines include the provision of emotional support, multidisciplinary practitioner support and educational support programmes. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Paternal incest is the intimate sexual contact between biological, step or foster fathers and their children. These father-figures include the live-in partners of the non-offending mother. The actual incidence of paternal incest in South Africa is not known; however, the South African Police Services report the incidence of incest in the Western Cape for 2011/2012 to be the second highest in South Africa. When children reveal the incest to any person, this is called disclosure. After disclosure and with the removal of the paternal figure from the family unit, the mother or grandmother is responsible for the sole care of the child-victim and becomes the primary caregiver. However, in the South African context it is traditionally accepted that the grandmother assumes the role of primary caregiver of the child where the child’s mother and/or father are unable to fulfil their parental role adequately. Therefore in this study, “primary caregivers” refers to mothers and maternal grandmothers. In the South African context, limited studies have been done that explore the experiences of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest. There is also a lack of information on how to support these primary caregivers in the abovementioned context. The aim of this study was firstly to explore the experiences of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest and secondly to use these experiences to suggest guidelines that may be utilised by practitioners (such as social workers and registered counsellors) to develop support programmes for these caregivers. The research was conducted at a non-profit organisation in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, that provides psychosocial services and where cases of paternal incest are referred for intervention. A qualitative, phenomenological research design was applied in this study to obtain rich data. Six primary caregivers were chosen through purposive sampling, on the basis that their children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest within the last five years. Of these, four were mothers and two were maternal grandmothers who were responsible for the children. Data was collected through in-depth interviews and was analysed thematically. Two main themes emerged from the study. The first theme involved reactions to the disclosure and its aftermath, which encompassed emotional, cognitive and physiological reactions that are similar to secondary traumatisation. The second theme was coping strategies that emerged to deal with the disclosure and its aftermath, which encompassed effective coping strategies (behavioural coping strategies to actively solve problems and the presence of social support), unhealthy or negative coping strategies (behavioural coping strategies of avoidance) and threats to coping (a lack of social support). The contribution of this study lies in the suggestion of guidelines for the support of primary caregivers whose children or grandchildren were exposed to paternal incest. These guidelines include the provision of emotional support, multidisciplinary practitioner support and educational support programmes. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

This research involves the exploration of the potential, as well as the problems, of early adolescents’ relationships in the context of the school-and-home in a high-risk community in South Africa. Although researchers indicate that school performance and academic success is of key importance concerning positive youth development (You & Nguen, 2011), many South African adolescents are still part of the high incidence of repeating greades and drop-out statictics in this country (Louw, Bayat & Eigelaar-Meets, 2011). This study highlights one of the factors for school success, namely, the involvement of primary care givers in the school community. There is a need to explore adolescents’ perceptions of their primary care givers’ involvement in the school community, within the context of a high-risk South African community, since research within Positive Psychology also explores those resources which promote wellbeing and resilient coping. This study made use of the qualitative method and the results have been presented in an article format, as part of the dissertation. The aim of the article was to explore early adolescents’ perceptions of their primary care-givers’ involvement in the school community in a high-risk community. Participants (N=12) between the ages of twelve to fourteen years, from one school in the Delft Community, Cape Peninsula, were chosen in an un-biased fashion. The Delft community is one of the twenty identified high-risk communities in South Africa. Demographic information shows that the majority of the participants’ care-givers are not the biological parents. The findings indicate that early adolescents percieve their primary caregivers’ involvement in the school community, in a high-risk community, in the following ways: The meeting of basic needs, such as the provision of food, clothing and a home is essential for the adolescent’s school career; the emotional colour of the involvement of care givers is mostly negative, since school visitations involve the handling of problems, or the prevention of further problems; the early adolescent’s understanding of school success greatly matches that of his/her primary care- givers and is seen mostly in terms of either “pass” or “fail”; and early adolescents’ school careers and primary care-givers’ involvement within the context of a high-risk community involve experiences such as the exposure to continued poverty with various implications such as hunger, walking to school in an unsafe environment, as well as gang-violence, crime and substance abuse. This study shows that, besides the challenges that are associated with the adolescent life-phase, early adolescents also have to deal with various other problems that emanate from a high-risk community. These problems are generally matters of survival, and it is clear that these risks further strain well-being and the development thereof. Poor involvement of primary caregivers in the school community is one of the realities which early adolescents in a high-risk community have to deal with, and this poor involvement is indicative of not providing life essentials, as well as personal interest and encouragement. It is further the experience of negative emotions, such as fear in general and the “scared-ness” indicates adolescents’ fear for their own safety, as well as that of their friends and family. The participants in this study have all been affected directly and/or indirectly by the trauma of gang violence and the untimely death of a family member. In the midst of these challenges, the primary caregivers are mostly uninvolved in these vulnerable adolescents’ lives. Primary care-givers visit the school community mainly when they are summoned to handle “problems”. Primary care-givers generally have a negative association with the school community. The less negative experience of emotions indicates the absence of serious problems, such as the not-completion of school work. The scarce occurrence of positive emotions, such as primary care-givers that show compassion with early adolescents when they experience disappointment, is actually part of the participants’ experiences. The primary care- givers’ active helping with the early adolescents’ school tasks is uncommon and it is mostly focused on the prevention of the repetition of school grades. The presence of a family member (extended family) with school meetings has great value for the early adolescents’ perception of family as a protective factor for the well-being of the young person. This study presents an important contribution to Positive Psychology, as valuable information is presented to understand the early adolescent’s well-being and the context thereof. The specific descriptions of early adolescents’ perceptions of the involvement of their primary care-givers in the school community provide a description of the potential which can be unlocked in school-and-life choices. Findings have implications for policies regarding the promotion of well-being. Recommendations for further study are given. Possibilities for application includes the importance of the ecological impact and of partnerships, so that problems and the development of well-being can be addressed by primary care givers, school communities, faith communities, NGOs and universities. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

This research involves the exploration of the potential, as well as the problems, of early adolescents’ relationships in the context of the school-and-home in a high-risk community in South Africa. Although researchers indicate that school performance and academic success is of key importance concerning positive youth development (You & Nguen, 2011), many South African adolescents are still part of the high incidence of repeating greades and drop-out statictics in this country (Louw, Bayat & Eigelaar-Meets, 2011). This study highlights one of the factors for school success, namely, the involvement of primary care givers in the school community. There is a need to explore adolescents’ perceptions of their primary care givers’ involvement in the school community, within the context of a high-risk South African community, since research within Positive Psychology also explores those resources which promote wellbeing and resilient coping. This study made use of the qualitative method and the results have been presented in an article format, as part of the dissertation. The aim of the article was to explore early adolescents’ perceptions of their primary care-givers’ involvement in the school community in a high-risk community. Participants (N=12) between the ages of twelve to fourteen years, from one school in the Delft Community, Cape Peninsula, were chosen in an un-biased fashion. The Delft community is one of the twenty identified high-risk communities in South Africa. Demographic information shows that the majority of the participants’ care-givers are not the biological parents. The findings indicate that early adolescents percieve their primary caregivers’ involvement in the school community, in a high-risk community, in the following ways: The meeting of basic needs, such as the provision of food, clothing and a home is essential for the adolescent’s school career; the emotional colour of the involvement of care givers is mostly negative, since school visitations involve the handling of problems, or the prevention of further problems; the early adolescent’s understanding of school success greatly matches that of his/her primary care- givers and is seen mostly in terms of either “pass” or “fail”; and early adolescents’ school careers and primary care-givers’ involvement within the context of a high-risk community involve experiences such as the exposure to continued poverty with various implications such as hunger, walking to school in an unsafe environment, as well as gang-violence, crime and substance abuse. This study shows that, besides the challenges that are associated with the adolescent life-phase, early adolescents also have to deal with various other problems that emanate from a high-risk community. These problems are generally matters of survival, and it is clear that these risks further strain well-being and the development thereof. Poor involvement of primary caregivers in the school community is one of the realities which early adolescents in a high-risk community have to deal with, and this poor involvement is indicative of not providing life essentials, as well as personal interest and encouragement. It is further the experience of negative emotions, such as fear in general and the “scared-ness” indicates adolescents’ fear for their own safety, as well as that of their friends and family. The participants in this study have all been affected directly and/or indirectly by the trauma of gang violence and the untimely death of a family member. In the midst of these challenges, the primary caregivers are mostly uninvolved in these vulnerable adolescents’ lives. Primary care-givers visit the school community mainly when they are summoned to handle “problems”. Primary care-givers generally have a negative association with the school community. The less negative experience of emotions indicates the absence of serious problems, such as the not-completion of school work. The scarce occurrence of positive emotions, such as primary care-givers that show compassion with early adolescents when they experience disappointment, is actually part of the participants’ experiences. The primary care- givers’ active helping with the early adolescents’ school tasks is uncommon and it is mostly focused on the prevention of the repetition of school grades. The presence of a family member (extended family) with school meetings has great value for the early adolescents’ perception of family as a protective factor for the well-being of the young person. This study presents an important contribution to Positive Psychology, as valuable information is presented to understand the early adolescent’s well-being and the context thereof. The specific descriptions of early adolescents’ perceptions of the involvement of their primary care-givers in the school community provide a description of the potential which can be unlocked in school-and-life choices. Findings have implications for policies regarding the promotion of well-being. Recommendations for further study are given. Possibilities for application includes the importance of the ecological impact and of partnerships, so that problems and the development of well-being can be addressed by primary care givers, school communities, faith communities, NGOs and universities. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014